Key Points
- It is often difficult to recognize pain in the avian patient. A bird may respond to pain by becoming restless, inappetant, reluctant to move or vocalize, or by a change in personality. The bird may refuse to groom or may over-groom, feather pick, or even self-mutilate over a painful site.
- Although pain may be difficult to recognize in the avian patient, ask yourself: Would this hurt me? Does this lesion or procedure damage tissue? Is the patient behaving abnormally?
- Provide preemptive analgesia whenever possible.
- Birds may be more susceptible to the adverse effects of local anesthetics than mammals
- Studies in pigeons have demonstrated that they have more kappa opioid receptors in the forebrain and midbrain than mu receptors, which might partially explain why birds do not respond to mu agonist drugs, in the same manner as mammals.
- No single drug or class of drugs can be used to treat all pain because the mechanisms of pain are multi-factorial and can be initiated from both peripheral and central sites. Consider use of a number of drugs to provide analgesia.
Pain assessment in birds is very complex because it requires consideration of differences in age, gender, species, individual behaviors and environmental factors. Birds may exhibit different behaviors or may hide painful behaviors when outside of their home cage. Predatory species may exhibit painful behaviors more readily than prey species. Many clinical signs may be associated with pain in birds including . . .
Pour les vétérinaires. Par les vétérinaires.
Le site Lafervet.com est conçu pour une utilisation par les vétérinaires. Il est ouvert aux vétérinaires diplômés, aux techniciens vétérinaires diplômés, aux animaliers et aux étudiants dans ces domaines.
Créer un compte pour accéder à des articles et des ressources du site.
L'inscription est gratuite.
Para Profesionales Veterinarios. Por Profesionales Veterinarios.
El sitio Lafervet.com es para uso de los profesionales veterinarios. Está abierto a los veterinarios licenciados, técnicos veterinarios licenciados, rehabilitadores licenciados y estudiantes en estos campos.
Cree una cuenta para acceder a los artículos y recursos del sitio.
La registro es gratis.
Already a LafeberVet Member?
Please Login
References
Baert K, De Backer P. Comparative pharmacokinetics of three non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in five bird species. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2003;134:25-33.
Baert K, De Backer P. Disposition of sodium salicylate, flunixin, and meloxicam after intravenous administration in ostriches (Struthio camelus). J Avian Med Surg 2002;16:123-128.
Cheng HF, Harris RC. Cyclooxygenases, the Kidney, and Hypertension. Hypertension 2004;43 1-6.
Clyde VL, Paul-Murphy J. Avian Analgesia In: Ritchie BW, Harrison GJ,Harrison LR, eds. Avian medicine: principles and application. Lake Worth, FL: Wingers Pub, 1994;309-314.
Coderre TJ, Katz J, Vaccarino AL, et al. Contribution of central neuroplasticity to pathological pain: review of clinical and experimental evidence. Pain 1993;52:259-285.
Curro TG, Brunson DB, Paul-Murphy J. Determination of the ED50 of isoflurane and evaluation of the isoflurane-sparing effect of butorphanol in cockatoos (Cacatua spp.). Vet Surg 1994;23:429-433.
Fan S, Shutt AJ, Vogt M. The importance of 5-hydroxytryptamine turnover for the analgesic effect of morphine in the chicken. Neuroscience 1981;6:2223-2227.
Flecknell PA. Analgesia in Small Mammals. Sem Avian Exotic Pet Med 1998;7 41-47.
Gentle MJ, Tilston VL. Reduction in peripheral inflammation by changes in attention. Physiol Behav 1999;66 289-292.
Glatz PC, Murphy LB, Preston AP. Analgesic therapy of beak-trimmed chickens. Aust Vet J 1992;69:18.
Graham JE, Kollias-Baker C, Craigmill AL, et al. Pharmacokinetics of ketoprofen in Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica). J Vet Pharmacol Ther 2005;28:399-402.
Harris RC. Interactions between COX-2 and the renin-angiotensin system in the kidney. Acta Physiol Scand 2003;177:423-427.
Hocking PM, Gentle MJ, Bernard R, et al. Evaluation of a protocol for determining the effectiveness of pretreatment with local analgesics for reducing experimentally induced articular pain in domestic fowl. Res Vet Sci 1997;63 263-267.
Hoppes S, Flammer K, Hoersch K, et al. Disposition and analgesic effects of fentanyl in white cockatoos (Cacatua alba). J Avian Med & Surg 2003;17:124-130.
Hughes RA. Strain-dependent morphine-induced analgesic and hyperalgesic effects on thermal nociception in domestic fowl (Gallus gallus). Behav Neurosci 1990;104 619-624.
Hughes RA. Codeine analgesia and morphine hyperalgesia effects on thermal nocicepetion in domestic fowl. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1990;35 567-570.
Katz J, Kavanagh BP, Sandler AN, et al. Preemptive analgesia. Clinical evidence of neuroplasticity contributing to postoperative pain. Anesthesiology 1992;77:439-446.
McGeowen D, Danbury TC, Waterman-Pearson AE, et al. Effect of carprofen on lameness in broiler chickens. Vet Rec 1999;144:668-671.
Ludders JW. Avian anesthesia for the general practitioner, in The North American Veterinary Conference Proceedings. Veterinary Proceedings 1994;791-793
Machin KL, Livingston A. Assessment of the analgesic effects of ketoprofen in ducks anesthetized with isoflurane. Am J Vet Res 2002;63:821-826.
Machin KL, A. L. Plasma bupivicaine levels in mallard ducks (Anas platyrhyncos) following a single subcutaneous dose. Proc Am Assoc Zoo Vet 2001;159-163.
Mansour A, Khachaturian H, Lewis ME, et al. Anatomy of CNS opioid receptors. Trends Neurosci 1988;11:308-314.
Mizuno H, Sakamoto C, Matsuda K, et al. Induction of cyclooxygenase 2 in gastric mucosal lesions and its inhibition by the specific antagonist delays healing in mice. Gastroenterology 1997;112:387-397.
Paul-Murphy J, Hess J, Fialkowski JP. Pharmokinetic properties of a single intramuscular dose of buprenorphine in African Grey Parrots (Psittacus erithacus erithacus). J Avian Med Surg 2004;18:224-228.
Paul-Murphy J, Brunson DB, Miletic V. Analgesic effects of butorphanol and buprenorphine in conscious African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus erithacus and Psittacus erithacus timneh). Am J Vet Res 1999;60 1218-1221.
Reiner A, Brauth SE, Kitt CA, et al. Distribution of mu, delta, and kappa opiate receptor types in the forebrain and midbrain of pigeons. J Comp Neurol 1989;280:359-382.
Robertson SA. Analgesia and analgesic techniques. Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract 2001;4:1-18, v.
Roughan JV, Flecknell PA. Buprenorphine: a reappraisal of its antinociceptive effects and therapeutic use in alleviating post-operative pain in animals. Lab Anim 2002;36:322-343.
Schmassmann A, Peskar BM, Stettler C, et al. Effects of inhibition of prostaglandin endoperoxide synthase-2 in chronic gastro-intestinal ulcer models in rats. Br J Pharmacol 1998;123:795-804.
Wilson G, Hernandez-Divers S, Budsberg S, et al. Pharmacokinetics and use of meloxicam in psittacine birds. 25th Annual AAV Conference and Expo 2004;7-9.
Woolf CJ, Chong MS. Preemptive analgesia–treating postoperative pain by preventing the establishment of central sensitization. Anesth Analg 1993;77:362-379.
Hawkins M. Avian analgesia. July 10, 2007. LafeberVet Web site. Available at https://lafeber.com/vet/avian-analgesia/