\nCruciferous
\nvegetables<\/td>\n | Brassica<\/em> vegetables which contain sulfur compounds such as broccoli, cauliflower, turnips, and kale. Excellent sources of indoles, dithiolthiones, isothiocyanates and chlorophyllins which are theorized to possess potent anti-cancer properties.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\n| Crude fiber<\/td>\n | Old-fashioned term that refers to the remnants of plant fiber that remain after the extraction process. Crude fiber underestimates the amount of hemicellulose, and therefore the amount of dietary fiber, in food.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Crustacivore<\/td>\n | Species which feed on large numbers of crustaceans (i.e. crab plover, some rails, penguins, auks)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Culmen<\/td>\n | Dorsal midline of the upper beak.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nCurly toe
\nparalysis<\/td>\n | Flexion of digits with toes curled under which may occur in chicks with riboflavin deficiency.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Cuticle<\/td>\n | Glycoprotein matrix that protects the inner surface of the ventriculus.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Cuttlebone<\/td>\n | Source of dietary calcium<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Cuttlefish bone<\/td>\n | See Cuttlebone<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Cyanide<\/td>\n | Chemical compound present in apple seeds as well as cherry, plum, apricot, and peach pits.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Cyanocobalamin<\/td>\n | See Cobalamin<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Cysteine<\/td>\n | Nonessential amino acid of birds created by degradation of methionine. Feathers and eggs are rich in cysteine.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\nD<\/h2>\n\n\n\n| Dabbler<\/td>\n | Technique of obtaining food in which a duck submerges its head and neck or tips up in various water substrates to feed on vegetable matter (Subfamily Anatinae)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nDaily
\nmetabolizable energy requirement<\/td>\n | The amount of energy expended through oxidation of nutrients and energy retained in tissues = maintenance metabolizable energy requirement + additional metabolizable energy needed for deposition of products such as body tissue, feathers, eggs<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Daily requirement<\/td>\n | Method of expressing dietary requirement based on intake (mg\/day or mg\/kg BW\/day)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| DE<\/td>\n | See Digestible energy<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| 7-dehydroxycholesterol<\/td>\n | Cholesterol in skin converted to vitamin D3<\/sub> when exposed to ultraviolet light. Chickens require 11 to 30 minutes of strong sunshine daily for adequate
\nvitamin D.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\n| Delta-tocopherols<\/td>\n | Fraction of vitamin E with low biologic activity but relatively high anti-oxidant efficacy.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| DHA<\/td>\n | See Docosahexanoic acid<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Diabetes mellitus<\/td>\n | An endocrine disease that is not completely understood in birds, however in granivorous species glucagons levels appear to be excessive while in carnivores insulin levels may be deficient.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nDietary
\nrequirement<\/td>\n | Method of expressing nutritional requirement based on the concentration of nutrient within the diet (% of the diet or g\/kg diet)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Digestibility<\/td>\n | A measure of diet quality based on the proportion of nutrients available for absorption.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nDigestibility,
\nApparent<\/td>\n | The relationship between nutrients consumed in the diet and nutrients that disappear from the
\ngastrointestinal tract = (Nutrient intake \u2013 Nutrient in Feces)\/Nutrient intake.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nDigestibility,
\nTrue<\/td>\n | True digestibility corrected for the part of nutrients in feces of endogenous origin = (Nutrient intake – Nutrients in feces) + Endogenous fecal losses)\/Nutrient intake.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nDigestible energy
\n(DE)<\/td>\n | DE is the energy actually absorbed and digested = total energy minus energy lost in feces<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Diglycerides<\/td>\n | A lipid commonly used as an emulsifying agent.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Dipeptide<\/td>\n | Two amino acids joined together by a peptide bond.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nDirect
\ncalorimetry<\/td>\n | Form of bomb calorimetry that measures metabolizable energy expenditure by the rate at
\nwhich heat is released.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Disaccharide<\/td>\n | Carbohydrate made of two monosaccharide units linked together (i.e. sucrose = glucose +
\nfructose)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nDocosahexanoic
\nacid (DHA)<\/td>\n | An eicosanoid and a member of the omega-3 fatty acid family.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n\u201cDumping
\nsyndrome\u201d<\/td>\n | Cramping, diarrhea, and vomiting which may occur secondary to the introduction of excessive fluids into the
\nintestines<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\nE<\/h2>\n\n\n\n| EFA<\/td>\n | See Essential
\nfatty acid<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Egestion<\/td>\n | A pellet
\ncontaining indigestible materials (i.e. fur, bone, feathers) formed by
\ngastric contractions in birds of prey. Antiperistaltic waves push the pellet
\nup the esophagus and out of the mouth.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Egg<\/td>\n | An excellent
\nsource of protein, vitamins, and minerals. Contains most essential amino
\nacids. Contains B vitamins, vitamin D, and some vitamin E. Excellent source
\nof iodine, zinc, and calcium. Of course even more calcium is present within
\nthe egg shell. Although iron is present in the egg, its bioavailability is
\nunclear. The egg contains approximately 11.2% fat; the vast majority of which
\nis found in the yolk.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Eicosanoids<\/td>\n | Members of the omega-3 essential fatty acids family (i.e. eicosapentanoic acid, docosahexanoic acid) that reduce inflammation (perhaps by inhibiting the COX-2 enzyme) and are essential for brain development. Found in fatty fish such as salmon, white tuna, mackerel, rainbow trout, herring, halibut, and sardines.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nEicosapentanoic
\nacid (EPA)<\/td>\n | A member of the omega-3 fatty acid family which ideally should be included in the diet. See Eicosanoids.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Electrolytes<\/td>\n | A substance that will dissolve into ions in solution such as sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium and phosphate.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Elemental diet<\/td>\n | A
\nnutritionally-balanced liquid diet that is in a highly digestible form so
\nthat it puts minimal stress on the gastrointestinal system.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nEmulsifying
\nagents<\/td>\n | Food additive used to blend together ingredients like oil and water allowing greater contact between antioxidants and fats. Naturally-derived agents include
\nlecithin, modified starches, monoglycerides, and diglycerides.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Energy<\/td>\n | Not a nutrient, but one of the most critical components of the diet. Body obtains energy through oxidation of chemical bonds producing energy-rich compounds such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Energy density<\/td>\n | Number of calories provided in a given weight or volume of food expressed as kJ of diet\/volume of diet or kcal\/kg. Energy density is the primary factor that determines how much food is eaten daily<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Energy, Gross<\/td>\n | See Gross energy<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nEnergy
\nrequirements<\/td>\n | See Basal metabolic requirements (BMR)
\nSee Maintenance energy requirements (MER)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| EPA<\/td>\n | See Eicosapentanoic acid<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Ergocalciferol<\/td>\n | Also known as vitamin D2. Form of vitamin D used by mammals, but not used efficiently by birds<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Ergosterol<\/td>\n | Biologic precursor of vitamin D synthesized by plants, fungi, molds, lichens, and some invertebrates (e.g. snails, worms). Converted to vitamin D2 by ultraviolet light.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Esophagus<\/td>\n | Muscular tube
\nthat extends from the oropharynx to proventriculus. The esophagus is
\nrelatively wider than in mammals and expandable due to a series of
\nlongitudinal folds. Mucus glands provide lubrication.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nEsophagostomy
\ntube<\/td>\n | Feeding tube placed under general anesthesia for long-term feeding of the anorectic patient.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nEssential fatty
\nacids (EFAs)<\/td>\n | Polyunsaturated fatty acids that cannot be assembled from other fats within the body, but must be consumed whole in food. Linoleic acid (omega-6) and linolenic acid (omega-3) are essential fatty acids in birds. The absolute requirement is much greater for linoleic acid than linolenic acid.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Ether extract<\/td>\n | An estimate of fat content based on the portion of a compound soluble in ether.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Ethoxyquin<\/td>\n | Synthetic antioxidant with high efficacy especially for oils containing high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids. FDA Center for Veterinary Medicine requires that ethoxyquin must be declared on the label regardless of the source or amount. Although considered to be moderately toxic, ethoxyquin has been approved for use in animal feeds for more than 30 years.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Extruded diet<\/td>\n | Mixture of ground grains and vitamin\/minerals forced through an extruder under pressure and subjected to temperatures higher than for pellets (between 90-180\u00b0C). Manufacturers of extruded bird foods include Kaytee\u00ae, Zupreem\u00ae, and Mazuri\u00ae.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Extrusion<\/td>\n | See Extruded diet<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Exudativores<\/td>\n | Birds that probe or drill for saps, gums, resins (i.e. sapsucker)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\nF<\/h2>\n\n\n\nFacultative
\nfrugivory<\/td>\n | Many birds in temperate climates switch to a fruit-based diet during the fall.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nFacultative
\ninsectivory<\/td>\n | Many birds in temperate climates switch to an insect-based diet during the spring.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Faunivore<\/td>\n | Species which consume foods almost exclusively of animal origin. Also known as a zoophage.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Fat<\/td>\n | Complex molecule composed of fatty acids and glycerol which serves as a storage form of energy. Contains three times more energy than protein or carbohydrate. Each gram of fat supplies the body with about 9 calories
\nImproves dietary palatability and texture which increases the danger of overeating and obesity.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nFat-soluble
\nvitamins<\/td>\n | See Vitamins, fat-soluble<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Fatty acids<\/td>\n | Building blocks of fats
\nChain of carbon atoms with hydrogen atoms attached and a carbon-oxygen-oxygen-hydrogen group at one end.
\nVary in carbon-chain length
\nMay be saturated, monounsaturated, or polyunsaturated
\nDietary fatty acid deficiencies impair wound healing and absorption of fat-soluble vitamins and may cause dry skin.
\nManipulation of omega 3-to-omega 6 fatty acid ratio in diets can stimulate or reduce the immune response<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nFatty acids,
\nEssential<\/td>\n | See Essential fatty acids<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nFatty acids,
\nshort-chain (SCFA)<\/td>\n | Volatile fatty acids produced by bacterial fermentation of fiber. Metabolism of fatty acids such as acetate, propionate, and butyrate provide energy to enterocytes and colonocytes.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nFatty liver and
\nkidney syndrome<\/td>\n | Syndrome seen in adult merlins and broiler chicks which may be caused by biotin deficiency<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Feathers<\/td>\n | Epidermal growths made of keratin, feathers make up the largest part of the protein mass of birds (5.7%) and 28% of total body protein. Amino acids found in feathers include proline, serine, glycine, cysteine, valine, and leucine and many non-essential amino acids.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Feeding trials<\/td>\n | The most accurate method for determining metabolizable energy content of food. Requirements are determined by the Association of American Feed Control Officials.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Fermentation<\/td>\n | Bacterial fermentation of fiber produces short-chain fatty acids and other end-products<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Fiber<\/td>\n | Group of complex carbohydrates with beta bonds that resist enzymatic digestion in most avian species but promote normal gastrointestinal motility. Bacterial fermentation of fiber provides energy. Examples of
\ndietary fiber include cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, plant gums,
\nand mucilages.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Fiber, Insoluble<\/td>\n | See Insoluble fiber<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Fiber, Soluble<\/td>\n | See Soluble fiber<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nFirst limiting
\namino acid<\/td>\n | Amino acid in food that is most deficient relative to bird\u2019s requirement<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Fish<\/td>\n | Nutritional value of fish varies with species, age, gender, stage of life cycle, season, location of catch, storage, and handling. However all fish are good sources of protein, and most fish are great sources of major and trace minerals. Some species contain very high levels of vitamins A and D. Although there are ample amounts of vitamin E in fresh fish, much of the vitamin E originally present may be destroyed prior to feeding since vitamin E is a natural antioxidant. Fatty fish such as salmon, white tuna, mackerel, rainbow trout, herring, halibut, and sardines are a rich source of omega-3 fatty acids. Unfortunately some types of fish may also contain environmental contaminants such as methylmercury or polychlorinated biphenols, particularly shark, swordfish, king mackerel, and tilefish<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Flavonoids<\/td>\n | See Bioflavonoids<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Flax seed<\/td>\n | Oil seed frequently fed to small granivores. A rich source of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Flax seed oil<\/td>\n | A \u201cheart-healthy\u201d oil containing omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids in a ratio off 2:1. Also known as linseed oil.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Florivore<\/td>\n | Species that eat plant-based foods such as seeds, fruits, nuts, and berries. Also known as a phytophage.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Folates<\/td>\n | See Folic acid<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Folic acid<\/td>\n | Group of B-vitamins (vitamins B10 and B11 and pteroylglutamic acid) with related activity. Folic acid plays a role in intermediary metabolism, particularly the synthesis of thymidine, a component of DNA. Folic acid and B12 work together to produce methionine from homocysteine, and folic acid is also involved in blood cell synthesis. Folic acid is synthesized by bacteria
\nwithin the intestines; dietary sources include dark, leafy, greens, legumes,
\nsome fruits, organ meats, and egg yolks. Deficiency may lead to poor weight
\ngain, anorexia, anorexia, leukopenia, glossitis, immunosuppression, poor
\nfeathering and pigmentation, reduced egg production, and reduced
\nhatchability.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Folivore<\/td>\n | Herbivore that mainly eats leaves (i.e. hoatzin)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Formulated diets<\/a><\/td>\n | Commerical bird food products (i.e. pellets, extruded foods, whole grains and\/or seeds mixed with pellets) are usually based on ground grains such as corn to supply energy and ground legumes such as soybean meal or peanut meal to supply protein.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Fortified<\/td>\n | Something added to feed to increase its nutritional value. Many seed mixes are \u201cfortified\u201d by coating the seed with nutrients (i.e. spraying the shell). Since parrots and songbirds crack seeds before ingesting, waste occurs and very little nutrient is consumed.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Fructose<\/td>\n | Monosaccharide also known as fruit sugar found in ripe fruits, honey, and some vegetables. Also formed from digestion or hydrolysis of the disaccharide, sucrose.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Frugivore<\/td>\n | Concentrate selector that eat soft, moist fruits (e.g. macaws such as
\nthe green-wing macaw, orange-winged Amazon parrot, toucan, waxwing, and some
\npigeons. Many frugivores supplement their diet with insects.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Fungivore<\/td>\n | Concentrate selector which eats fungus (i.e. Pygmy parrot)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\nG<\/h2>\n\n\n\n| Gallbladder<\/td>\n | Absent in some bird species (i.e. ostrich, hummingbird, passerines, and many species of pigeons, doves, and parrots) and present in other species such as ducks.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Gamma-tocopherol<\/td>\n | Fraction of vitamin E with relatively low biological activity, but relatively high antioxidant activity<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nGarlic (Allium
\nsativum<\/em>)<\/td>\nA case report has suggested toxicity (nephrosis) after ingestion of large amounts of garlic. Garlic contains the toxic ingredient, thiosulphate.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Gastrin<\/td>\n | Hormone which stimulates HCl secretion, and is also necessary for normal growth of the lining of the gut.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| GE<\/td>\n | See Gross energy<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Gelatin<\/td>\n | Colorless or pale yellow, clear, brittle protein derived from boiling specially prepared skin, bones, and connective tissue.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Generalist<\/td>\n | Species which eat a variety of foods<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Germination<\/td>\n | See Sprouted seeds<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Gizzard<\/td>\n | See Ventriculus<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Glucagon<\/td>\n | Glucagon assists in keeping blood sugar in the normal range, and its action is opposite that of insulin. Glucagon forces many different body cells to release (or produce) glucose, with the end result of increasing blood sugar levels. Glucagon stimulates the liver to produce and release glucose into the bloodstream by stimulating hepatic glycogenolysis. Glucagon is usually secreted when the glucose levels drop in the bloodstream. For some reason, with avian diabetes<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Gluconeogenesis<\/td>\n | Metabolic pathway induced when glucose intake does not meet metabolic demands. Most birds shift to gluconeogenesis within several hours postprandial because of low levels of storage glycogen paired with a high metabolic rate. Primary substrates for gluconeogenesis are glycerol and amino acids.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Glucose<\/td>\n | Glucose is the body\u2019s basic source of energy. This monosaccharide is the main form in which carbohydrate is absorbed, exchanged between tissues, and channeled into metabolic pathways. A species\u2019 ability to absorb glucose is generally equivalent to the amount of glucose in the diet (i.e. hummingbirds can absorb more glucose than chickens which can absorb more glucose than raptors).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Glutamate<\/td>\n | Nonessential amino acid of birds<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Glutamine<\/td>\n | Nonessential amino acid of birds. Glutamine serves as the preferred source of energy and nitrogen for small intestinal
\nmucosal cells.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Gluten<\/td>\n | Plant proteins found in cereal grains like corn, barley, rye, and wheat. In mammals, maldigestive disease may be observed after some ingestion of some proteins (e.g. celiac disease).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Glycerin<\/td>\n | See Glycerol<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Glycerine<\/td>\n | See Glycerol<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Glycerol<\/td>\n | A liquid sugar alcohol obtained from fats and oils; used as a humectant to keep foods soft and moist; sweet-tasting and low in toxicity<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Glycine<\/td>\n | An essential amino acid in growing chicks. A conditionally essential amino acid in chickens, and probably budgies, on diet low in methionine or argine, and probably in budgerigar parakeets. Can be converted to serine by a reversible reaction. Used to make pyrimidines and purines<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Glycogen<\/td>\n | Polysaccharide that the body can easily and rapidly convert to energy. Serves as the storage form of glucose in the liver and muscles.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| GMO<\/td>\n | See Non-GMO corn<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Gnathotheca<\/td>\n | The keratin layer covering the lower beak.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| <\/a>Goiter<\/td>\n | Iodine deficiency seen mainly in budgerigar parakeets as a result of iodine-deficient water and millet-based seed mixtures. Clinical signs are secondary to enlargement of the thyroid gland and secondary compression of the trachea and\/or crop. Treatment generally relies on iodine
\nsupplementation in drinking water.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nGoitrogenic
\ncompounds<\/td>\n | Foods that bind iodine making it unavailable for use such as peas, peanuts, soybeans, and flaxseed.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Golden conure<\/td>\n | Species which requires relatively high dietary fat levels.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Gonys<\/td>\n | Ventral midline curve of the lower beak.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Gout<\/td>\n | Accumulation of uric acid tophi in or around joints or on serosal surfaces. Pathogenesis of gout is not completely understood but may be associated with conditions that reduce uric acid excretion or increase uric acid production such as dehydration, excess dietary calcium, and hypovitaminosis A. Although high dietary protein has been theorized, gout could not be induced in adult cockatiels fed up to 70% crude protein for 11 months, however sudden changes in dietary protein levels have also been suggested to lead to gout.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Graminivore<\/td>\n | A species which feed on grasses (e.g. geese, swans)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Granivore<\/td>\n | Species that eat grains, hard seeds, and hard, dry, nutrient-dense fruits (i.e. beans, nuts) such as the budgerigar parakeet, cockatiel, sparrow, and finch.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Grit<\/td>\n | Grit is particulate matter needed for proper ventricular function in species that ingest seeds whole (i.e. pigeons, doves, struthioformes, free-ranging galliformes) to assist in grinding. Grit is not absolutely necessary in other seed-eaters, and if offered should only be given in small amounts. Grit should not be offered ad libitum since it may be associated with pica and secondary impaction.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Grit, Insoluble<\/td>\n | Quartz or other forms of silica are examples soluble grit which does not act as a mineral source in birds.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Grit, Soluble<\/td>\n | Small amounts of soluble grit may help birds meet their calcium needs. Examples include oyster shell, cuttlebone, limestone, canunda shell, and gypsum.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Gross energy (GE)<\/td>\n | The total amount of potential energy within food. Also known as intake energy. Calculated with the use of a bomb calorimeter.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Growth<\/td>\n | Requires greater amounts of protein, calcium, and energy, particularly in hatchlings<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Guild<\/td>\n | An assortment of species which use the same food resources. Guilds are classified by combining food type (e.g. granivore) with substrate (e.g. ground) and method for acquiringfood (e.g. grazer)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Gum<\/td>\n | Soluble fiber composed primarily of galacturonic acid.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Gypsum<\/td>\n | Calcium sulfate provided as a soluble grit<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\nH<\/h2>\n\n\n\n| Hagen\u00ae<\/td>\n | Manufacturer of a variety of extruded bird foods including Tropican\u2122 parrot sticks.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nHarrison\u2019s Bird
\nFoods\u00ae<\/td>\n | Manufacturer of a family of certified organic formulated bird foods.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| HDL<\/td>\n | See High-density lipoproteins<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Heat<\/td>\n | Form of energy released in approximately 60% of metabolic reactions.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Heat increment<\/td>\n | Losses in metabolizable energy due to intermediary metabolism (lowest for dietary lipid; highest for protein)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Hemicellulose<\/td>\n | Insoluble and soluble fibers found in seed coverings (i.e. bran, whole grains)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Hemochromatosis<\/a><\/td>\n | Massive accumulation of iron in the liver (iron storage disease) seen in captive toucans, mynahs, birds of paradise, starlings, and quetzals. Pathogenesis is unknown. A diet low in iron and vitamin C is advised.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Heptic lipidosis<\/td>\n | Fatty liver disease is a reversible condition that may develop in birds fed high fat or high energy diets or with fatty acid or vitamin B deficiencies.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Herbivore<\/td>\n | Browser that consumes leaves, buds, shoots, grasses (i.e. ostrich, grouse, some ducks)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nHigh-density
\nlipoproteins (HDL)<\/td>\n | Group of lipoproteins that functions as a transporter of cholesterol in the blood. High levels reduce the risk of atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nHigh-quality
\nproteins<\/td>\n | See Protein, high-quality<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Histidine<\/td>\n | Essential amino
\nacids in growing chickens used to make histamine<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Homocysteine<\/td>\n | Metabolic intermediary amino acid. Elevated blood levels increase the risk of heart disease by attacking cells lining the arteries.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Honey<\/td>\n | Sweet, thick, sticky yellow or brown fluid produced by bees nutritionally similar to nectar<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Honeydew<\/td>\n | Secretions of
\nsap-sucking insects such as the nymph stage of aphids, coccids, and plant
\nlice (Pysllidae) nutritionally similar to nectar.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Horsemeat<\/td>\n | Protein source used in commercially prepared Bird of Prey diets (e.g Nebraska Brand\u00ae)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Humectants<\/td>\n | Glycerol and other sugars used to keep foods soft and moist.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Hyacinth macaw<\/a><\/td>\n | Species with high dietary fat requirements<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Hydroxylysine<\/td>\n | Nonessential amino acid in birds<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Hydroxyproline<\/td>\n | Nonessential amino acid in birds<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\nI<\/h2>\n\n\n\n| Ideal protein<\/td>\n | A protein that provides the exact balance of amino acids needed to meet the bird\u2019s needs and provides enough nitrogen for synthesis of nonessential amino acids.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nIncomplete
\nprotein<\/td>\n | Protein source lacking sufficient amounts of all essential amino acids.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nIndirect
\ncalorimetry<\/td>\n | Form of bomb calorimetry that measures the rate of oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide release. This information can be used to calculate the rate of metabolizable energy expenditure.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Ingluvies<\/td>\n | See Crop<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Insectivore<\/td>\n | A species that primarily eats insects (i.e. warbler, flycatcher, shrike)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Insoluble fiber<\/td>\n | Fiber which passes through the gastrointestinal tract largely intake such as lignin, cellulose, and some hemicelluloses found in whole grains and other plants. Insoluble fiber absorbs water and promote gastrointestinal motility.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Insulin<\/td>\n | A protein hormone made by the pancreas important in regulation of carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. Acts to decrease blood glucose by stimulating cellular uptake of cells, stimulating glycogen synthesis, and decreasing gluconeogenesis.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Iodine<\/td>\n | Micromineral required for synthesis of thyroid hormones. Deficiency leads to goiter.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Iron<\/td>\n | Most abundant trace element in the body present in enzymes and other proteins.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nIron storage
\ndisease<\/td>\n | See Hemochromatosis<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Isoleucine<\/td>\n | An essential
\namino acid in birds<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Isthmus<\/td>\n | Area of constriction between the proventriculus and ventriculus present in granivorous species.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\nJ<\/h2>\n\n\n\n| Joule<\/td>\n | SI unit for expressing energy (1 joule = 0.239 calories)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\nK<\/h2>\n\n\n\n| Kaytee\u00ae<\/td>\n | A producer of a
\nvariety of bird foods included Exact Rainbow\u2122 pellets, Exact\u2122 hand-feeding formula, as well as a line of organic products.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nKilocalorie
\n(kcal)<\/td>\n | Unit used to measure the amount of heat produced by metabolizing food. 1 kilocalorie is the energy needed to raise the temperature of 1kg of water by 1\u00b0C.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Koilin<\/td>\n | Glycoprotein matrix or cuticle which protects the inner surface of the ventriculus or gizzard in granivorous species.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\nL<\/h2>\n\n\n\n| L-carnitine<\/td>\n | See Carnitine<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Lactic acid<\/td>\n | Acid produced by anaerobic fermentation of undigested dietary fiber within the large
\nintestine.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Lactose<\/td>\n | Disaccharide is the only carbohydrate of mammalian origin. It consists of a glucose and galactose molecule.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nLactose
\nintolerance<\/td>\n | Avian enterocytes lack the enzyme, lactase, and therefore lactose should be avoided whenever possible.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Lafeber Company\u00ae<\/td>\n | Manufacturer of a variety of foraging diets such as Avi-Cakes\u2122 and Nutri-Berries\u2122, pellets, and the critical care formula line: Emeraid.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Lamina muscularis<\/td>\n | Middle (sometimes inner) layer of digestive epithelium<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Lamina propria<\/td>\n | Outermost layer of digestive epithelium<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Lecithin<\/td>\n | Phospholipids containing choline promote lipid transport in cell membranes. Used as an emulsifying
\nagent.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Legumes<\/td>\n | Family of plants rich in lysine such as soybeans, beans, and peas. Legumes also contain bioflavanoids and other polyphenols that act as antioxidants.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Lerp<\/td>\n | Waxy substance secreted as a protective scale by psyllids (plant lice) that is nutritionally similar to nectar<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Leucine<\/td>\n | An essential amino acid in birds. High levels (such as those found in diets high in millet) interfere with the conversion of tryptophan to niacin.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Lignin<\/td>\n | Insoluble fiber found in plant stems, leaves, and skin.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Limestone<\/td>\n | A common dietary supplement (calcium carbonate) and a form of soluble grit. Crystalline limestone is called marble.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nLimiting amino
\nacid<\/td>\n | The essential amino acid that is present in the smallest proportion. In bird food, this is most commonly methionine, tryptophan, or lysine.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Linoleic acid<\/td>\n | Essential fatty acid for birds and a member of the omega-6 fatty acid family. Rich dietary sources include vegetables oils such as safflower oil, sunflower oil, corn oil, and soybean oil.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Linolenic acid<\/td>\n | Essential fatty acid for birds and a member of the omega-3 fatty acid family. Commonly found in walnuts, flaxseeds or flaxseed oil, soybean or canola oil.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Linseed oil<\/td>\n | See Flax seed oil.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Lipid<\/td>\n | Insoluble (hydrophobic) compounds such as fats (solid at room temperature) and oils (liquid at room temperature). Lipid is the primary energy source for birds between meals, throughout migration, and during embryonic development.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Lipoprotein<\/td>\n | Protein paired with lipid that carries cholesterol through the body. Classified according to their densities as very low, low, and high-density lipoproteins.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nLow-density
\nlipoproteins (LDL)<\/td>\n | Lipoproteins which transport cholesterol in the blood. High levels increase the risk of heart disease by promoting plaque formation and atherosclerosis.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Lutein<\/td>\n | Dietary carotenoid<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Lycopene<\/td>\n | Dietary carotenoid<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Lysine<\/td>\n | An essential amino acid in birds and most labile of the amino acids. Deficiency results in bronze pigmentation of feathers in turkey poults<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\nM<\/h2>\n\n\n\n| Macaws<\/a><\/td>\n | Some macaws
\nrequire higher dietary fat levels. Some species may also be particularly
\nsusceptible to the toxic effects of vitamin D.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Macrofaunivore<\/td>\n | Species that eat
\nother vertebrates<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Macrominerals<\/td>\n | Minerals required
\nin large quantities because they form a major part of the body\u2019s structural
\ncomponents (i.e. calcium, phosphorus, magnesium)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Macromolecules<\/td>\n | Large molecules
\nwhich make up the majority of the diet (i.e. lipids, fiber, proteins,
\ncarbohydrates, and water)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Macronutrients<\/td>\n | See
\nMacromolecules<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Magnesium<\/td>\n | Macromineral
\nfound in some enzymes and used to make body tissues, especially bone. Dietary
\nsources include bone, oil seeds, grains and fiber sources. Deficiencies may
\noccur with intestinal or kidney disease or with drug use that that increases
\nrenal excretion of magnesium (i.e. diuretics, amingolycosides, amphotericin).
\nSigns of deficiency may include weakness, ataxia, seizures,
\npoor growth and
\nlethargy in chicks, poor egg production, and poor hatchability in hens.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nMaintenance
\nenergy requirements (MER)<\/td>\n | Energy required
\nto maintain body weight in a moderately active,healthy, non-reproducing adult
\nin a thermoneutral environment. MER = Basal metabolic rate + energy required
\nfor supporting maintenance activities and thermoregulation. Daily energy
\nrequirements have been documented in budgies.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Malnutrition<\/td>\n | See Refeeding
\nSyndrome<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Manganese<\/td>\n | Trace element
\nfound in enzymes that metabolize carbohydrates and synthesize fats. Dietary
\nsources include whole grains, fruits, and vegetables. Deficiency leads to
\nreduced egg production and shell strength in laying hens, poor hatchability,
\nand perosis in chicks and poults.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Manna<\/td>\n | Fluid exuded from
\ndamaged plants which later crystallizes. Nutritionally similar to nectar.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Marble<\/td>\n | Crystalline
\nlimestone<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Mazuri\u00ae<\/td>\n | A producer of a
\nvariety of zoological products including extruded bird foods.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| ME<\/td>\n | See Metabolizable
\nenergy<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nMean retention
\ntime<\/td>\n | The average
\nlength of time that food is retained in the gastrointestinal tract.
\nApproximately 15-60 minutes in frugivores, 30 to 50 minutes in most avian
\nnectarivores (80 minutes in rainbow lorikeets), and 40 to 100 minutes in
\ngranivores. Usually an order of magnitude shorter than the time required for
\ncomplete evacuation of the gastrointestinal tract.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Meat byproducts<\/td>\n | Tissues such as
\nlung, spleen, kidney, brain, blood, bone, and intestine.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nMeckel\u2019s
\ndiverticulum<\/td>\n | Yolk sac remnant
\nlocated at the junction between the jejunum and ileum. Grossly visible in
\nchickens, but only visible histologically in many species as a collection of
\nlymphatic follicles. Also known as vitteline diverticulum.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nMedium chain
\ntriglycerides<\/td>\n | Triglycerides
\nwhich serve as an excellent source of lipids and calories. May be a good
\nsubstitute for fat since they are directly absorbed by the small intestine
\nwithout a need for micelles or pancreatic secretion of lipase.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Menadione<\/td>\n | The most common
\nform of synthetic vitamin K (vitamin K3) which has vitamin activity 2 to 3
\ntimes higher than that of natural vitamin K1.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Menoquinone<\/td>\n | Vitamin K2
\nsynthesized by colonic bacteria.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Mercury<\/td>\n | Common
\ncontaminant of some types of fish such as shark, swordfish, king mackerel,
\nand tilefish<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nMetabolizable
\nenergy (ME)<\/td>\n | The energy in
\nfood available to the body for use after losses from feces, urine, and the
\nproduction of heat.
\nBest determined
\nby feeding trials, but ME may also be calculated using mathematical formulas.
\nME varies with the diet and the species. For instance, if a waterfowl and
\nsongbird are fed the same high-fiber diet, the waterfowl will have a higher
\nME due to its better ability to digest fiber.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nMetabolizable energy
\ncoefficient (MEC)<\/td>\n | Term often used to describe apparent
\nmetabolizable energy value. Expressed as a fraction of gross energy of the
\nfood (AME\/GE)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Methionine<\/td>\n | A
\nsulfur-containing essential amino acid of used to make carnitine, creatine,
\nniacin, polyamines, purines, and choline. Methionine may be broken down to
\nmake cysteine. Eggs are a rich source of methionine. Deficiency in the chick
\nresults in dark stress bars.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Microfaunivore<\/td>\n | A species which
\neats invertebrates<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Microminerals<\/td>\n | A trace element
\nrequired in small amounts such as iron and iodine.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Micronutrient<\/td>\n | A substance, like
\na vitamin or mineral, needed in tiny amounts.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Microvilli<\/td>\n | See villi<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Migration<\/td>\n | Period of high
\nenergy demands. Prior to migration, flight muscles hypertrophy and fat
\ndeposition occurs secondary to hyperphagia of high-energy foods (i.e fruits,
\nseeds). Birds are the only vertebrates which fuel
\nhigh-intensity exercise with fatty acids delivered from adipose tissue.
\nVery-low-density lipoproteins transport fatty acids.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Milk thistle<\/td>\n | See Silymarin<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Millet<\/td>\n | Non-oil seed
\nfrequently fed to small granivores that is low in protein and other essential
\nnutrients. Diets high in millet should be supplemented with niacin.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Minerals<\/td>\n | The inorganic
\nportion of the diet (i.e. calcium, iron, magnesium, selenium, zinc).
\nMeat-based foods are a better source of minerals than plant foods due to
\ncompounds such as phytates, oxalates, goitrogens, and fiber.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Mixed tocopherols<\/td>\n | Naturally-derived
\nantioxidant derived from distilling soybean oil residue. Further processing
\nseparates out the fractions:
\nalpha (a), delta (d), and gamma (g). A mixture containing both alpha- and
\ndelta-tocopherols is the most effective natural antioxidant.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nModified Atwater
\nfactors<\/td>\n | Values assigned
\nfor energy content of proteins and carbohydrates (3.5 kcal\/g) and fats (8.5
\nkcal\/g).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Molluscivore<\/td>\n | A faunivore which
\nprimarily eats mollusks such as limpkins, snail kite, oystercatchers, and
\nkiwi.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Molt<\/td>\n | The process of
\nshedding and replacing feathers associated with increased protein needs and
\nincreased energy needs due to the loss of insulation. See Feathers.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Molybdenum<\/td>\n | Trace element
\nwhich is part of several enzymes that metabolize proteins. Dietary sources
\ninclude beans and grains. Molybdenum content in plants varies with soil
\nlevels.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Monoglycerides<\/td>\n | A lipid commonly
\nused as an emulsifying agents.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Monophagous<\/td>\n | A species which
\neats only one kind of food (i.e. the Snail Kite primarily eats one species of
\nfreshwater snail).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Monosaccharides<\/td>\n | A group of simple
\nsugars (the simplest form of carbohydrate) such as glucose, fructose, or
\ngalactose.
\nMonosaccharides
\ncan combine to form polymers.
\nSimple sugars are
\nrequired in large amounts for normal
\nmetabolism in
\nhummingbirds, lories, and sunbirds. In most birds, simple sugars a great
\nmedium for overgrowth of yeast, and they should be avoided.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nMonounsaturated
\nfatty acids<\/td>\n | Triglycerides
\nwith one double bond such as palmitoleic acid (i.e. olive oil).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Mycotoxins<\/td>\n | Toxins produced
\nby a fungus such as ochratoxin, oosporein, and aflatoxin.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\nN<\/h2>\n\n\n\n| Nasofrontal hinge<\/td>\n | Maxilla
\narticulates with the skull at the nasofrontal hinge, an area of flexibility
\nwhich allows a widening of oral opening in some birds such as parrots,
\nflamingos, woodpeckers, and hornbills. The nasofrontal hinge is a synovial
\njoint in parrots giving them the highest degree of flexibility and movement.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Nectar<\/td>\n | Dilute sugar
\nsolution low in proteins, vitamins, and trace minerals. Predominant sugars
\ninclude sucrose, glucose, and fructose.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Nectarivore<\/td>\n | Feeding strategy
\npracticed by lories, lorikeets, honeycreepers, hummingbirds, sunbirds, and
\nhoneyeaters which eat nectar, pollen, manna, honeydew, and\/or lerp. Most
\nspecies will also eat insects and\/or mixtures of fruit.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Niacin<\/td>\n | B vitamin created
\nfrom tryptophan that plays an important role in cellular oxidation-reduction
\nenzyme systems. Good dietary sources include animals, fish, cereals, legumes,
\nand oil seeds. Deficiency may be associated with diets high in corn or
\nmillet. Niacin deficiency, also known as, pellagra or black tongue, leads to
\ndermatitis, diarrhea, dementia, and death.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Nicotinamide<\/td>\n | Metabolically
\nactive form of niacin.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Nitrogen<\/td>\n | Element essential
\nfor the synthesis of nonessential amino acids<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nNitrogen-corrected
\nmetabolizable energy (MEn<\/sub>)<\/td>\nMetabolizable
\nenergy values corrected for the loss or retention of body protein so that
\nbirds growing or losing weight are comparable.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Non-GMO corn<\/td>\n | Any corn hybrid
\nthat has not been genetically modified through biotechnology procedures<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Nutri-Berries<\/td>\n | A Lafeber Company\u00ae product consisting whole grains and seeds
\nmixed with pellets to create a balanced product.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Nutri-Meals<\/td>\n | A Lafeber Company\u00ae product consisting of whole grains,
\nfruits, vegetables, and seeds mixed with pellets to create a balanced
\nproduct.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nNutrient
\ndeficiency<\/td>\n | Addition of more
\nnutrient improves growth, reproduction, fitness, or corrects some
\npathological condition.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nNutrient
\nimbalance<\/td>\n | High levels of
\none nutrient increase the requirement of another nutrient.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Nutrient toxicity<\/td>\n | Nutrient levels
\nare high enough to induce specific pathology.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Nutrient-dense<\/td>\n | Fleshy fruit with
\nlarge amounts of lipid and protein, but less water and sugar such as
\navocados, palms, dates<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Nutrient density<\/td>\n | Expression of
\nnutrient content as grams per 100 kcal of metabolizable energy<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Nutrient-dilute<\/td>\n | Fleshy fruit with
\na relatively indigestible skin and a large proportion of seeds.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nNutrient
\nrequirement<\/td>\n | See Dietary
\nrequirement<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Nutrients<\/td>\n | Components of the
\ndiet that provide energy and that have specific functions for growth,
\nmaintenance, and health. Divided into major categories: water, carbohydrates,
\nproteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nNutrients,
\nessential<\/td>\n | Nutrients that
\nare not created by the body in quantities adequate to meet nutritional needs.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nNutrients,
\nnon-essential<\/td>\n | Nutrients created
\nby the body in quantities adequate to meet nutritional needs.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Nutritional niche<\/td>\n | The exact foods
\nconsumed within a range of foods available.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\nO<\/h2>\n\n\n\n| Oat groat<\/td>\n | Hulled oat grain
\nfrequently added to seed mixtures for
\nsmall granivores to increase protein level (range from 15-17.5%
\nprotein)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Obesity<\/td>\n | A common problem
\nin the pet bird. Species prone to obesity include galahs, budgerigars,
\nsulfur-crested cockatoos, Amazon parrots, and cockatiels.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nObligate
\nconsumers<\/td>\n | Species that
\nconsume a specific food item during their entire adult life.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Oil<\/td>\n | Lipids that are
\nliquid at room temperature.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Oligivore<\/td>\n | Species which
\neats a limited number of foods, also known as a oligivore<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Oligophage<\/td>\n | See Oligivore<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Oligosaccharide<\/td>\n | Difficult to
\ndigest carbohydrates often found in plants made of 3 to 10 monosaccharide units.
\nProvide nutrition for intestinal flora.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nOmega-3 fatty
\nacids<\/td>\n | Family of
\npolyunsaturated fatty acids which reduce platelet aggregation, decrease
\ncholesterol and triglyceride levels, and lower blood pressure. Important
\nomega-3 fatty acids include linolenic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid, and
\ndocosahexaenoic (DHA).
\nFish oils are a
\nrich dietary source.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nOmega-6 fatty
\nacids<\/td>\n | Unsaturated fatty
\nacid, which along with omega 9 fatty acids, is more immunologically
\nstimulating than omega 3 fatty acids. Linoleic acid is the shortest chain
\nfatty acid and an essential fatty acid.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nOmega-9 fatty
\nacid<\/td>\n | Unsaturated fatty
\nacid, which along with omega 6 fatty acids, is more immunologically
\nstimulating than omega 3 fatty acids. Not classififed as an essential fatty
\nacid because it may be created from unsaturated fat.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Omega egg<\/td>\n | Egg enriched with
\nomega-3 fatty acids. Produced by hens fed a diet which includes flaxseed.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Omnivore<\/td>\n | A generalist
\nfeeder that eats animal and plant matter. Also known as a polyphage or
\npolyvore. Examples include the Sulphur-crested cockatoo, tinamous, bustards,
\nquail, pheasants, cranes, and corvids.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Onion<\/td>\n | Food item that
\nshould be avoided particularly if offered raw or in large amounts. Onions
\ncontain the toxic ingredient, thiosulphate. Dogs and cats with onion toxicity
\ndevelop gastroenteritis and hemolytic anemia.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nOptimal foraging
\ntheory<\/td>\n | A concept that
\nstates a bird\u2019s morphology, physiology, and behavior are shaped by
\nevolutionary pressures to maximize its ability to acquire energy by foraging.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Organic<\/td>\n | Foods made
\naccording to specific production standards such as absence of conventional
\npesticides or food additives. Manufacturers of organic bird foods include
\nHarrison\u2019s Bird Foods\u00ae and Kaytee\u00ae.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Oropharynx<\/td>\n | The oral cavity
\nand pharynx makes up one region in the bird because there is no soft palate,
\nonly a hard palate.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Oxalic acid<\/td>\n | Compound found in
\nplants that can form indigestible complexes with minerals such as calcium
\nmaking them unavailable for absorption. Vegetables high in oxalic acid
\ninclude amaranth, cassava, chives, parsley, purslane, and spinach.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Oyster shell<\/td>\n | Source of dietary
\ncalcium. See Grit<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\nP<\/h2>\n\n\n\n| PABA<\/td>\n | See
\nPara-aminobenzoic acid<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Pancreas<\/td>\n | Glandular organ
\nthat secretes enzymes through three ducts which enter the duodenum. Enzymes
\nhydrolyze most starches, proteins, and nucleic acids in foods. Alkaline fluid
\nsecreted makes chyme less acidic so that amylase may act.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Pantothenic acid<\/td>\n | B-complex vitamin
\nthat serves as a component of acetyl coenzyme A (CoA) and the acyl-carrier
\nprotein. Found in most dietary food sources therefore deficiencies are rare.
\nSigns of deficiency may include hepatic lipidosis, erratic appetites, weight
\nloss, depressed growth, immunosuppression, ragged plumage, and dermatitis (rarely
\nas severe as in biotin deficiency)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Papaverine<\/td>\n | Alkaloid found in
\nsome plants.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nPara-aminobenzoic
\nacid (PABA)<\/td>\n | PABA is an
\nessential growth factor for microbes which is needed to make folic acid.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Parasympathetic<\/td>\n | Nervous system
\nthat controls gastrointestinal motility<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nParathyroid
\nhormone (PTH)<\/td>\n | Hormone which
\nincreases bone resorption to increase calcium levels.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nParenteral
\nnutrition<\/td>\n | Intravenous or
\nintraosseous feeding with a modified nutritive solution directly absorbed by
\ncells without first passing through the gastrointestinal tract.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Passerines<\/td>\n | Species belonging
\nto order Passeriformes with a basal metabolic rate that is usually higher
\nwhen compared to non-passerines of similar size. BMR = 129 x body weight (kg)0.73<\/sup><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\n| Peanuts<\/td>\n | Oil seed highly
\nsusceptible to mycotoxins contamination due to growth conditions in the
\nfield.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Pectin<\/td>\n | A soluble fiber
\nfound in fruits that helps to increase the viscosity of intestinal contents
\nwhile increasing water-holding capacity. Composed of galactose, arabinose,
\nand galacturonic aicd.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Pellagra<\/td>\n | Niacin
\ndeficiency, See Niacin<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Pellet<\/td>\n | 1). Formulated
\ndiet made by grinding a variety of grains, adding a vitamin-mineral premix,
\nputting the mix through a hammer mill to ensure appropriate particle size,
\nand using a dry or steam process under heat (70-80\u00b0C) to force it through a
\ndie to produce a pellet shape.
\n2). See Egestion<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Pentose<\/td>\n | A monosaccharide
\ncontaining five carbon atoms which may be found in avian diets, especially
\nthose high in fiber (i.e. arabinose, xylose)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Pepsin<\/td>\n | Enzyme that
\nhydrolyzes protein at a variety of peptide bonds creating polypeptides.
\nSecreted as an inactive precursor, pepsinogen.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Pepsinogen<\/td>\n | Inactive
\nprecursor hydrolyzed by hydrochloric acid or previously activated pepsin to
\nbecome an active enzyme.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Peptide<\/td>\n | Short molecule
\ncreated by amino acids joined together.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Perosis<\/td>\n | See
\nChondrodystrophy<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nPersea<\/em> spp.<\/td>\n| See Avocado<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Phenylalanine<\/td>\n | An essential
\navian amino acid used to make melanin, epinephrine, norepinephrine, and
\nthyroxine. Hydroxylation of phenylalanine creates tyrosine.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Phocacholic acid<\/td>\n | See Beta-phocacholic
\nacid<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Phospholipids<\/td>\n | Lipid molecule
\nmade with the mineral phosphorus that transports hormones and fat-soluble
\nvitamins through blood and back and forth across cell membranes. Effectively
\nlower serum cholesterol levels<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Phosphorus<\/td>\n | Macromineral found
\nin bone and a structural component of RNA. High dietary levels are found in
\nmeat and eggs.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Phylloquinone<\/td>\n | Vitamin K1 found
\nin leafy, green plants.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Phytic acid<\/td>\n | Phosphorus
\ncontaining compound found in plants that can form indigestible complexes with
\nminerals such as calcium making them unavailable for absorption.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Phytochemicals<\/td>\n | Chemicals
\nproduced by plants which a variety of functions such as fibers, carotenoids, dithiolthiones,
\nbioflavanoids, indole carbinols, isothiocyanates, mono- and triterpenoids, and
\nthioallyl derivatives.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Phytophage<\/td>\n | See Florivore<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Pigeon\u2019s milk<\/td>\n | See Crop milk<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Piscivore<\/td>\n | Type of faunivore
\nthat eats fish<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Planktonivore<\/td>\n | A species that
\nmainly eats zooplankton (also known as a planktivore)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Pollen<\/td>\n | Fine to coarse
\npowder consisting of pollen grains eaten by nectarivores along with nectar.
\nPollen contains highly
\ndigestible protein, a varied amino acid profile, as well as vitamins C and
\nB-complex.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Polypeptide<\/td>\n | A protein
\ncontaining more than three peptides bonded together<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Polyphage<\/td>\n | See Omnivore<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Polyphenol<\/td>\n | Widespread,
\ncomplex compounds in plants that contain phenol groups such as
\nphenylpropanoids like lignins and bioflavonoids and tannins. Dietary sources
\ninclude teas, berries, and walnuts.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Polysaccharides<\/td>\n | Carbohydrates
\ncommonly found in plants consisting of thousands of monosaccharide units in
\nplants such as cellulose, starch, and glycogen. Also known as complex
\ncarbohydrates<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nPolyunsaturated
\nfatty acid (PUFAs)<\/td>\n | A triglycerides
\nwhich contain two or more double bonds.
\nEssential fatty
\nacids such as linoleic acid, linolenic acid, and arachidonic acid are PUFAs.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Polyvore<\/td>\n | See Omnivore<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Portomicron<\/td>\n | Lipoproteins used
\nto carry dietary triglycerides<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Potassium<\/td>\n | Principle
\nintracellular cation<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Potassium sorbate<\/td>\n | Preservative used
\nto prevent the formation of yeast and molds in food.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Precocial<\/td>\n | Species that
\nhatch with relatively well-developed eyes, muscles, coordination, and down
\nfeathers. The gastrointestinal tract is relatively immature at hatch, but
\nfood intake stimulates intestinal growth.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Preservatives<\/td>\n | Substances added
\nto food to protect nutrients (particularly dietary fats) from oxidative or
\nmicrobial damage under normal use and storage conditions.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nPreservatives,
\nNaturally-derived<\/td>\n | Generally not as
\nefficacious as synthetic preservatives, but more expensive (i.e. mixed
\ntocopherols, ascorbic acid, ascorbyl palmitate, and rosemary extract). Efficiency
\nincreases when naturally-derived antioxidants are combined.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nPreservatives,
\nSynthetic<\/td>\n | Examples include
\nbutylated hydroxyanisole, butylated hydrostytoluene, tertiary
\nbutylhydroquine, and ethoxyquin.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Pretty Bird\u00ae<\/td>\n | A producer of a
\nvariety of bird foods included pellets.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Probiotic<\/td>\n | A preparation of
\nlive microbes; probiotics have been recommended for prevention and treatment
\nof infectious diarrhea as well as prevention of antibiotic-induced diarrhea.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Proctodeum<\/td>\n | Posterior or
\ncaudal-most region of cloaca. The bursa of Fabricious is found on the dorsal
\nsurface of the proctodeum.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Prokinesis<\/td>\n | Flexion of the
\nbeak allowed by a nasofrontal hinge as seen in parrots, waterfowl,
\ngalliforms. Prokinesis also absorbs the shock associated with pecking,
\ndrilling, and seed cracking. Absent in some species like ostrich and raptors.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Proline<\/td>\n | Essential amino
\nacid in growing chickens<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Propionate<\/td>\n | Volatile or
\nshort-chain fatty acid produced by bacterial fermentation of fiber. Energy
\nmay be derived from its metabolism.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Propionic acid<\/td>\n | See Propionate<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Propylene glycol<\/td>\n | Tasteless,
\nodorless, colorless, clear, oily liquid added to food as a humectant since it
\neasily absorbs moisture.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Protein<\/td>\n | Large complex
\nmolecule made of hundreds to thousands of amino acids arranged as linear
\npolymers. Protein is the body\u2019s primary source of nitrogen.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nProtein,
\nHigh-quality<\/td>\n | Highly digestible
\nprotein which contains all essential amino acids in their proportions which
\nmeet the animal\u2019s needs. The higher the quality of protein, the lower the
\nquantity needed to meet essential amino acid needs.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nProtein
\ndegradation<\/td>\n | Hydrolysis of
\nprotein that frees amino acids<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Protein reserve<\/td>\n | The portion of
\namino acids which may be mobilized from lean body tissues<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Protein shift<\/td>\n | The increase in
\nprotein requirements which occurs during egg production, often accompanied by
\na change in food preferences<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Protein turnover<\/td>\n | The process of
\ncontinual synthesis and degradation of protein which leads to no net change
\nin the amount of protein<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Proventriculus<\/td>\n | Glandular portion
\nof the stomach that produces hydrochloric acid and pepsin to begin to break
\ndown and emulsify foods.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nProximate
\nanalysis<\/td>\n | Laboratory
\nanalysis of foods to evaluate a limited number of parameters such as moisture
\ncontent, crude protein, crude fat, mineral content, and fiber content.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nPteroglyglutamic
\nacid<\/td>\n | See Folic acid<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| PUFAs<\/td>\n | See
\nPolyunsaturated fatty acids<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Pyloric stomach<\/td>\n | Third,
\nchamber-like pyloric region below the ventriculus present in many birds that
\neat fish, aquatic invertebrates, or aquatic plants.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Pyridoxal<\/td>\n | One of the three
\ncompounds that make up vitamin B6, derived from animal tissue. See
\nPyridoxine.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Pyridoxamine<\/td>\n | One of the three
\ncompounds that make up vitamin B6; derived from animal tissue. See
\nPyridoxine.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Pyridoxine<\/td>\n | A plant-based
\ncompound that is part of vitamin B6. Vitamin B6 serves as a cofactor for
\nenzymes involved in amino acid metabolism. Rich dietary sources include
\nmeats, grains, vegetables, and nuts. Deficiency leads to anorexia, reduced
\ngrowth, muscle weakness, neurologic signs, and renal lesions, and neurologic
\nsigns.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\nQ<\/h2>\n\n\n\nQueen of Bavaria
\nconures<\/td>\n | See Golden conure<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Quinones<\/td>\n | The group of
\ncompounds that make up vitamin K.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\nR<\/h2>\n\n\n\n| Rape seed oil<\/td>\n | See Canola oil<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Rectum<\/td>\n | The short, small
\nlength of intestine between the ileocecal junction and cloaca. Also known as
\nthe colon or large intestine.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nRefeeding
\nsyndrome<\/td>\n | Electrolyte
\ndisturbance that may be seen with malnutrition, starvation, or prolonged
\ndiuresis. Reintroduction of nutrition leads to a rapid shift of ions from
\nserum to the intracellular space depleting
\npotassium,
\nphosphorus, magnesium, or calcium stores.
\nAvoid refeeding
\nsyndrome by introducing food cautiously, monitoring clinical status and electrolytes
\nclosely, and supplementing the diet as needed.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Reflux<\/td>\n | See Contraction
\nsequence<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Renal disease<\/td>\n | Nutritional
\ncauses of renal disease include excess dietary protein or calcium,
\nhypovitaminosis A, and hypervitaminosis D.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Reproduction<\/td>\n | Hens laying large
\nclutches of eggs require large amounts of dietary protein and calcium.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nResting metabolic
\nrate<\/td>\n | The amount of
\nenergy used by a bird on a normal diet while resting quietly in a
\nthermoneutral environment. Also known as the resting energy requirement, resting
\nmetabolic rate accounts for 60-75% of total daily intake.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Retention time<\/td>\n | See Mean
\nretention time<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Retinal<\/td>\n | Form of vitamin A
\nwith photoreceptive abilities in the rods due to the ability of the molecule
\nto resonate between isomeric forms when struck by light photons.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Retinaldehyde<\/td>\n | Retinal pigments
\nformed by oxidation of vitamin A alcohols.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Retinene<\/td>\n | See Retinaldehyde<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Retinoic acid<\/td>\n | Form of vitamin A
\nwhich regulates hormonal actions<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Retinoids<\/td>\n | Group of natural
\nand synthetic fat-soluble compounds collectively called vitamin A.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Retinol<\/td>\n | An alcohol form
\nof vitamin A and the primary form of vitamin A transferred to the egg<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Retinyl-palmitate<\/td>\n | Storage form of
\nretinol found in the liver.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Retrograde flow<\/td>\n | Normal reflux of
\ndigesta in the opposite direction. See Contraction sequence<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Rhamphotheca<\/td>\n | The outer horny
\nor keratin layer of the entire beak.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Rhinotheca<\/td>\n | The keratin layer
\ncovering the upper beak.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Rhynchokinesis<\/td>\n | Beak articulation
\nspread over a wide zone as opposed to a specific hinge. This is seen in members
\nof order Charadriiformes such as plovers, sandpipers, avocets, and
\noystercatchers.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Riboflavin<\/td>\n | Vitamin B2 serves
\nas part of coenzymes in oxidation systems. Dietary sources include liver,
\nleafy green plants, and fruits. Deficiency in growing poultry leads to
\nretarded growth, diarrhea, leg paralysis (curled toe paralysis)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Rice flour<\/td>\n | Flour relatively
\nhigh in protein and gluten-free.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Rictus<\/td>\n | Soft triangle of
\ntissue found where the upper and lower beak meet (oral commissure).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Rosemary extract<\/td>\n | Naturally-derived
\nantioxidant extracted from dried rosemary shrub leaves(Rosemarius<\/em> officinalis<\/em>).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\n| Roudybush\u00ae<\/td>\n | Manufacturer of a
\nvariety of bird foods such as Careline\u2122 pellets which includes diets marketed for intestinal, liver,
\nand renal disease.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\nS<\/h2>\n\n\n\n| Saccharose<\/td>\n | See Sucrose<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Safflower seeds<\/td>\n | Bitter oil seeds
\nwhich used to be considered superior to sunflower seeds because it was touted
\nto be free of papaverine (however both sunflower and safflower seeds are free
\nof papaverine).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Sanguinivore<\/td>\n | Species that
\nconsumes blood; this is rare among birds (i.e. Sharp-beaked Ground Finch of
\nthe Galapagos islands)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nSaturated fatty
\nacids<\/td>\n | Triglycerides
\ncontaining no double bond between carbon atoms and which are therefore
\n\u201csaturated\u201d with hydrogen atoms. In general, triglycerides in animal fats
\ncontain a higher percentage of saturated fatty acids than fats derived from
\nplants. Saturated fatty acids, such as lauric acid, may be synthesized by the
\nbody and are therefore considered nonessential fatty acids.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Scenic Bird Food\u00ae<\/td>\n | Producer of a
\nvariety of extruded bird food products including a line of hand weaning foods\u2122.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nSCFAs
\n(Short-chain fatty acids)<\/td>\n | See Fatty acids<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nSecond limiting
\namino acid<\/td>\n | Second most
\ndeficient amino acid in a given food<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Secretin<\/td>\n | Peptide hormone
\nproduced in the S cells of the duodenum in the crypts of Lieberkuhn which
\nstimulates (1) the pancreas to
\nsecrete a digestive juice rich in bicarbonate, (2) the stomach to produce
\npepsin, and (3) stimulates the liver to produce bile.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Seeds<\/td>\n | Most seeds
\ncommonly fed to pet birds are low in vitamin A, many B vitamins, calcium
\n(<0.1% calcium), and other minerals. Grains such as millet, canary seeds,
\nand corn are especially low with less than 0.03% calcium.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Seeds, Non-oil<\/td>\n | Seeds that store
\nmost of their energy as starch and are relatively low in energy and protein
\n(i.e. millet, canary seed, oat groats)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Seeds, Oil<\/td>\n | Seeds that
\ncontain 50% fat or more and are therefore a rich source of energy, protein,
\nomega-6 fatty acids, and vitamin E (i.e. safflower seeds, sunflower seeds, peanuts).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Selenium<\/td>\n | Trace mineral
\nused as a cofactor for the enzyme, glutathione perioxidase, in the
\nantioxidant system. Since its functions are similar to vitamin E, selenium
\nhelps to spare vitamin E levels. Dietary sources include meat, seafood, and
\ncereals.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Serine<\/td>\n | Nonessential
\namino acid created from dietary glycine by a reversible reaction<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nShort-chain fatty
\nacids<\/td>\n | See Fatty acids<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Silymarin<\/td>\n | Antioxidant which
\nmay serve to protect hepatocytes; Also known as milk thistle.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Simple sugar<\/td>\n | See Monosaccharide<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Slipped Tendon<\/td>\n | See
\nChondrodystrophy<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Sodium<\/td>\n | Principle
\nextracellular cation. Frequently provided in minimal dietary levels to reduce moisture of feces.
\nDietary sources
\ninclude fish, eggs, dried whey, poultry byproduct meal, and soy isolate.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Sodium benzoate<\/td>\n | Preservative
\nwhich serves as a mold inhibitor<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Sodium sorbate<\/td>\n | Preservative
\nwhich serves as a mold inhibitor<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Soluble fiber<\/td>\n | Fermentable fiber
\nsources such as pectin, gum, B-glucan, and some hemicelluloses which seem to
\nlower blood cholesterol levels.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Soy protein<\/td>\n | Protein source
\nhigh in antioxidants derived from the soybean.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Soya bean<\/td>\n | See Soybean<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Soybean<\/td>\n | Legume containing
\ncomplete protein or sufficient amounts of essential amino acids (unlike other
\nvegetables). Also a good source of dietary fiber. The first limiting amino
\nacid is methionine.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Soybean meal<\/td>\n | Created by
\nextracting most of the oil from whole soybeans. Common protein source in
\nmodern grain-based diets fed to poultry and pet birds.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Specialist<\/td>\n | Animal that eats
\na specific food type<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nSpirulina fusiformis<\/em><\/td>\nBlue-green algae
\nwhich may be used as a source of vitamin A.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Sprouted seeds<\/td>\n | Germination of
\nseeds decreases phytate content (which may increase availability of calcium,
\nmagnesium, zinc, iron, and protein), but this also increases availability of
\nphosphorus.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Starch<\/td>\n | Polysaccharide of
\nplants used for energy storage. Cereal grains such as corn, wheat, sorghum,
\nbarley, and rice are rich in starch.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Starvation<\/td>\n | A condition
\nresulting from serious or complete lack of nutrients. Starvation leads to shrinkage
\nof vital organs, reduction in organ function, chronic diarrhea, anemia, loss
\nof muscle mass, weakness, immunosuppression, and edema. Stress starvation can
\nlead to glucose intolerance making protein and fat important energy sources.
\nSee Refeeding syndrome.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Stenophagous<\/td>\n | Birds which
\nconsume a narrow range of food items (ex: vulturine parrot eats fruits from one or two figs in New
\nGuinea)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Steroid alcohol<\/td>\n | See Sterol<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Sterol<\/td>\n | Fat and alcohol
\ncompounds present in plant and animal tissues (i.e. ergosterol, cholesterol).
\nAlso known as steroid alcohols.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Sucrose<\/td>\n | A disaccharide
\nmade of fructose and glucose also known as table sugar. Sucrose is the most
\ncommon carbohyrate found in plants, and is also known as table sugar.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nSulfur amino
\nacids<\/td>\n | Methionine, cysteine,
\nand cystine. Nestlings have substantial requirements for sulfur amino acids
\nfor plumage development, but marginal levels of cystine and methionine may be
\nfound in hand feeding formulas. Deficiencies may lead to abnormal or ragged
\nplumage.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nSummit metabolic
\nrate<\/td>\n | Maximal
\nsustainable rate of heat production. This value (often 4 to 8-times basal
\nmetabolic rate) is an important determinant for the coldest temperature a
\nbird can endure.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Sunflower seed<\/td>\n | Oil seed that
\ncontains niacin, unlike most seeds. Although various cultivars have different
\nfat levels, the darker the seed the more fat it contains.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\nT<\/h2>\n\n\n\n| Tannins<\/td>\n | Secondary plant
\ncompounds (polyphenols) used by plants to defend against herbivores.
\nInterfere with protein digestion and can be toxic. Found in tea, bark of some
\ntrees, and the seeds and stems of grapes.
\nTheorized to
\nreduce iron absorption by acting as a
\nnatural chelator. Tea leaves must be added to diet with caution since
\nthey may reduce digestion and inhibit appetite.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Taste<\/td>\n | Birds have a
\nrelatively small number of taste buds (i.e. 350 in parrot tongue, 9000 in
\nhuman tongue), however taste is still an important factor in food acceptance
\nand avoidance. Research in cockatiels found birds were insensitive to sugary
\nflavors but very sensitive to potentially toxic compounds such as quinine,
\ngramine, and tannins.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Taurine<\/td>\n | A nonessential
\namino-sulfonic acid in birds that may be synthesized from methionine and
\ncysteine.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nTertiary
\nbutylhydroquine (TBHQ)<\/td>\n | Highly effective
\nsynthetic antioxidant approved for use in the United States, but not in
\nCanada, Japan, or the European Union.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Thiamin<\/td>\n | Vitamin B1 is
\ntaken up by all cells of the body and serves as a conenzyme for several
\nenzymes. Rich dietary sources include microbes (yeast, zooplankton), animal
\norigin, egg yolk, some cereal grains, and dried Brewer\u2019s yeast. Supplementation
\nis indicated when feeding thawed frozen fish. Deficiency results in central
\nnervous system signs. Requirements of pet birds have been reported to be
\nhigher than in poultry (0.01-0.04 mg\/day in canary and parrot 2-5 mg\/kg feed
\nin parrots)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Thiaminase<\/td>\n | Enzyme found in
\nhigh levels in some species of raw fish such as herring, smelt, mackerel,
\ncarp, shellfish (i.e. clams), as well as some bacteria (i.e. Clostrridium sporogenes<\/em>), yeast, and fungi. Thiaminases are
\ndestroyed by cooking. Recommended supplementation for piscivores fed frozen
\nfish is 25-30 mg \/kg of fish (wet basis).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n\n| Thiamine<\/td>\n | See Thiamin<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Thiosulfite<\/td>\n | Toxic compound
\nfound in onion and to a lesser extend garlic<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Threonine<\/td>\n | An essential
\namino acid in the bird<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| TME<\/td>\n | See True
\nmetabolizable energy<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Tocopherols<\/td>\n | A component of
\nvitamin E. Alpha tocopherols are the most active form of vitamin E in the
\nbody, and the component most commonly found in pet foods. Delta tocopherols
\nare the most potent antioxidant for foods, but the least biologically active
\nform.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Tocotrienols<\/td>\n | A component of
\nvitamin E<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Tomia<\/td>\n | Cutting edges of
\nthe beak<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Tongue<\/td>\n | Moved by hyoid
\napparatus in most birds. Parrots possess intrinsic tongue muscles.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Torpor<\/td>\n | Technique of small
\nbirds in cool climates (i.e hummingbirds) who reduce overnight energy
\nrequirements by decreasing body temp to less than 77\u00b0F (25\u00b0C)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nTotal daily
\nrequirement<\/td>\n | Maintenance
\nrequirement plus additional metabolizable energy needs for depositing tissues
\nassociated with growth, reproduction, molt, and reserves needed for migration
\nor seasonal deprivation.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nTotal energy
\nrequirement<\/td>\n | A combination of
\nall requirements for life and its stages including growth, reproduction, and
\nmolt.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Triglyceride<\/td>\n | A simple lipid
\nmade of three fatty acids linked to one molecule of glycerol. The most
\nimportant form of dietary fat and the densest storage form of energy.
\nTriglycerides are stored in adipose tissue in the adult and in yolk in the
\nembryo. Triglycerides facilitate absorption of fat-soluble vitamins and
\nincrease palatability of foods in some species.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Tripeptide<\/td>\n | Three peptides
\nbonded together<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nTrue
\nmetabolizable energy (TME)<\/td>\n | Correction of
\napparent metabolizable energy for the portion of excreta that has nothing to
\ndo with consumption of food<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Tryptophan<\/td>\n | An essential
\navian amino acid which is used to make serotonin and melatonin<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Tyrosine<\/td>\n | A nonessential
\namino acid created by hydroxylation of phenylalanine<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\nU<\/h2>\n\n\n\n| Urate<\/td>\n | Salt of uric acid<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Uric acid<\/td>\n | Nitrogenous end
\nproduct of protein and purine metabolism in birds synthesized in the liver,
\nand to a lesser extent, the kidney.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Urodeum<\/td>\n | The middle
\ncomponent of the cloaca that receives the ureters and reproductive tract.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Urolithiasis<\/td>\n | Formation of
\nurate concretions in the ureters which has been linked with excess dietary
\ncalcium, dietary electrolyte imbalances, and infectious bronchitis virus
\ninfection in chickens.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\nV<\/h2>\n\n\n\n| Valine<\/td>\n | An essential
\navian amino acid<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Vent<\/td>\n | The external
\nopening to the cloaca; often appears as a transverse slit.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Ventriculus<\/td>\n | The large,
\nmuscular component of the stomach with a thick inner cuticle or koilin in
\ngranivores and insectivores.
\nNectarivores tend to have small, less muscular gizzards.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nVery-low-density
\nlipoproteins (VLDL)<\/td>\n | A lipoprotein
\nthat carries dietary fatty acids. A yolk-targeted VLDL is made by the liver,
\nwhich targets the ovary in hens. In humans, VLDL may increase the risk of
\natherosclerosis by carrying cholesterol to tissues.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Villi<\/td>\n | Microvilli
\nincrease the surface area of the intestine for nutritional absorption. Some
\nfrugivorous and nectarivorous species have exceptionally long intestinal
\nmicrovilli (> 7 \u00b5m) which are thought to aid in absorption of sugars.
\nVilli extend into the rectum and coprodeum of budgerigars.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Viscosity<\/td>\n | Fiber increases
\nviscosity of intestinal contents. As visciosity increases, diffusion of
\nsubstrates and digestive enzymes decreases.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Vitamin<\/td>\n | An organic,
\ndietary component essential in minute quantities. A lack in the diet leads to
\ndeficiency, however requirements vary with the life stage. Growing and
\nreproducing animals have higher requirements.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Vitamin A<\/td>\n | Group of
\nfat-soluble compounds called retinoids. Vitamin A is essential for vision
\n(especially night vision), immune response, epithelial cell growth and
\nrepair, bone growth, reproduction, embryonic development, and epithelial
\nintegrity of respiratory, urinary, and intestinal tracts. Highest levels are
\nfound in liver, fish liver oils, egg yolk. Deficiency can lead to squamous
\nmetaplasia of mucous membranes, salivary glands, ureteral mucosa and
\ncollecting ducts; neurologic signs, decreased egg production, poorly formed
\nshells, early embryonic death, and decreased sperm production. Research shows
\nthat adult cockatiels at maintenance are more susceptible to toxicity than deficiency.
\nToxicity can result in skeletal malformation, spontaneous fractures,
\nprolonged clotting times and internal hemorrhage, anorexia, slow growth,
\nweight loss, skin thickening, enteritis, conjunctivitis, hepatic lipidosis,
\nand reduced function of the liver and kidneys.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Vitamin B-complex<\/td>\n | Group of
\nwater-soluble vitamins with similar metabolic functions: biotin, cobalamin (B12), choline,
\nfolic acid (B10, B11), niacin, pantothenic acid, pyridoxine (B6), riboflavin
\n(B2), thiamin (B1)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Vitamin B1<\/td>\n | See Thiamin<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Vitamin B2<\/td>\n | See Riboflavin<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Vitamin B6<\/td>\n | See Pyridoxine<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Vitamin B10<\/td>\n | See Folic acid<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Vitamin B11<\/td>\n | See Folic acid<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Vitamin B12<\/td>\n | See Cobalamin<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Vitamin C<\/td>\n | L-ascorbic acid
\nis a water-soluble vitamin made from glucose within the liver and\/or kidney
\nof most birds except for many passerines and some galliforms such as the
\nwillow ptarmigan. Vitamin C serves as an antioxidant and free radical
\nscavenger, plays a role in collagen synthesis, immune function (at large
\ndoses), and it is also involved in drug, steroid, and tyrosol metabolism.
\nVitamin C increases absorption of iron.
\nSigns of
\ndeficiency have not been documented in pet birds.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Vitamin D<\/td>\n | Group of
\nfat-soluble sterols such as cholecalciferol (D3) and ergosterol (D2) that
\nregulate calcium and phosphorus absorption, mobilization, and deposition in
\nbone and intestines. Vitamin D3 is stored in liver, muscle, and fat tissue.
\nDeficiency can lead to rickets in young animals and osteomalacia and
\nosteoporosis in adults. Toxicity can result in hypercalcemia and soft tissue
\nmineralization, particularly in nestling parrots.
\nMacaws may be
\npredisposed to hypervitaminosis D.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Vitamin E<\/td>\n | Fat-soluble
\nvitamin, consisting of tocopherols and tocotrienols, which serves as a
\nnatural antioxidant. Tocopherol levels are highest in green leaves. Other
\ndietary sources include vegetable oils, seeds, and cereal grains. Animal
\ntissues tend to be low in vitamin E, although highest levels are found within
\nthe liver and fat. Vitamin E must be carefully maintained in formulated
\ndiets. Signs of deficiency include muscular dystrophy of the heart or
\nventriculus, steatitis, encephalomalacia, exudative diathesis and testicular
\ndegeneration. Vitamin E is one of the least toxic vitamins, however extremely
\nhigh doses may lead to impaired bone mineralization, reduced hepatic storage
\nof vitamin A, and coagulopathies.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Vitamin K<\/td>\n | Group of
\nfat-soluble vitamins called quinones required for synthesis of clotting
\nfactors II, VII, IX, and X. Dietary sources include green leafy vegetables,
\ncabbage, cauliflower, liver, egg, alfalfa meal, oil seed meal, and certain
\nfish meals. Animal sources are generally lower in vitamin K when compared to
\nplant sources. Vitamin K1 is phylloquinone. Vitamin K2 , menoquinone, is
\nsynthesized by bacteria in the large intestine. Vitamin K3 (menadione) is the
\nmost common form of synthetic vitamin K. Certain drugs, mainly antibiotics,
\ndecrease intestinal absorption of vitamin K. Deficiency may also occur with
\nintestinal malabsorption or ingestion of anticoagulants. Conures may have
\nhigher requirement for vitamin K.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nVitamins,
\nfat-soluble<\/td>\n | Vitamins
\npassively absorbed and transported with chylomicrons to the liver. Vitamins
\nA, D, E, and K<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nVitamins,
\nwater-soluble<\/td>\n | Vitamins absorbed
\nby active transport (vitamins C and B-complex)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nVitelline
\ndiverticulum<\/td>\n | See Meckel\u2019s
\ndiverticulum<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Vitellogenin<\/td>\n | Protein
\nsynthesized by the liver of the laying hen that complexes with phospholipids
\nand cholesterol<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| VLDL<\/td>\n | See
\nVery-low-density lipoproteins<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nVolatile fatty
\nacids<\/td>\n | Short-chain fatty
\nacids: acetic, propionic, and butyric acids which provide energy when
\nmetabolized.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\nW<\/h2>\n\n\n\n| Water<\/td>\n | The most critical
\npart of the diet related to survivability. Of bird species studied, canaries
\nare most sensitive to water deprivation, particularly during the first few
\nweeks of life.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nWater-soluble
\nvitamins<\/td>\n | See Vitamins,
\nwater-soluble<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Weaning<\/td>\n | Gradual process
\nof transition to a solid food diet that
\noccurs in response to physiologic changes of growth.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Wood sugar<\/td>\n | See Xylose<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\nX<\/h2>\n\n\n\n| Xanthophyll<\/td>\n | A type of
\ncarotenoid pigment (i.e. lutein, zeaxanthin) and a natural antioxidant<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nXerophilic
\nspecies<\/td>\n | Able to go for
\nmonths w\/o drinking water
\nBudgerigar
\nparakeets, Zebra finches<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Xylose<\/td>\n | Monosaccharide
\ncontaining five carbon atoms or pentose also known as wood sugar.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\nY<\/h2>\n\n\n\n| Yolk<\/td>\n | Yellow spherical
\nportion of the egg that provides nutrition to the developing embryo. Yolk
\ngets its color from carotenoids. Yolk lipids (vitellogenins and lipoproteins)
\nare made by the liver in response to rising estrogen levels, and transported
\nto ovarian follicles in the blood. (During this time, the liver increases in
\nsize and appears bright yellow in color).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\nZ<\/h2>\n\n\n\n| Zeaxanthin<\/td>\n | Dietary
\ncarotenoid that gives egg yolk, <a
\nhref=”http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Maize”>corn, <a
\nhref=”http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Saffron”>saffron, and many other plants their
\ncharacteristic color.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Zinc<\/td>\n | Trace element
\nwith a wide variety of roles. Important for carbohydrate, lipid, protein, and
\nnucleic acid metabolism; protects nerve and brain tissue, protects against
\nfree radicals, and boosts immunity. Dietary sources include meat and fiber. Zinc can decrease the body\u2019s ability
\nto utilize copper.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \nZone of
\nthermoneutrality<\/td>\n | Range of
\nenvironmental temperatures at which an adult bird can maintain body
\ntemperature without influencing maintenance energy requirements<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Zoophage<\/td>\n | A life form that eats
\nanimal material, also known as a faunivore<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n | \n| Zupreem\u00ae<\/td>\n | Manufacturer of a
\nvariety of bird food products including a line of colorful extruded bird
\nfoods (FruitBlend\u2122) and
\ndye-free extruded foods (Natural\u2122)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\nReferences<\/h2>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"Created with a focus on the bird, LafeberVet\u2019s Nutrition Glossary is an extensive list of vocabulary terms. Listed terms range from nutrients like vitamins and minerals, nutritional strategies ranging from frugivore to fungivore, and related anatomy or physiologic terms like crop and coprodeum, and even nutrition-related diseases like goiter and gout.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":5,"featured_media":12412,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[1],"tags":[670,1451,1284,554,1319,292,1254,331],"class_list":["post-12408","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-uncategorized","tag-energy","tag-mineral","tag-omega-fatty-acid","tag-protein","tag-vitamin","tag-vitamin-a","tag-vitamin-d","tag-vitamin-k","content_types-article","topics-gastroenterology","topics-hepatology","topics-nutrition","species-avian","channel-resources-education","contributor-pollock"],"acf":[],"yoast_head":"\n Avian Nutrition Glossary - LafeberVet<\/title>\n<meta name=\"description\" content=\"Created with a focus on the bird, LafeberVet\u2019s Nutrition Glossary is an extensive list of vocabulary terms. 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