{"id":57142,"date":"2025-09-30T21:55:16","date_gmt":"2025-10-01T02:55:16","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/lafeber.com\/vet\/?p=57142"},"modified":"2026-05-11T16:52:33","modified_gmt":"2026-05-11T21:52:33","slug":"avian-euthanasia-welfare-and-techniques","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/lafeber.com\/vet\/avian-euthanasia-welfare-and-techniques\/","title":{"rendered":"Avian Euthanasia: Welfare Considerations & Clinical Techniques"},"content":{"rendered":"

Introduction<\/h2>\n

Euthanasia may be considered an essential part of veterinary practice, however the incredible diversity of class Aves creates special challenges for veterinary health professionals seeking to provide a death free of distress or pain (Fig 1).31<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

\"A<\/a>

Figure 1.<\/strong> A one-size fits all approach to euthanasia of birds is not feasible. Class Aves includes a diverse range of species with varying sizes, anatomy, physiology, environments, domestication levels, clinical conditions, and responses to restraint, each posing unique challenges. Photo credit from upper left to lower right: Jill Murray, RVT, RLATG, VTS; Mario Micklisch\/Flickr Creative Commons, Aneesa Malik, and LafeberVet. Click image to enlarge.\u00a0<\/em><\/small><\/p><\/div>\n

 <\/p>\n

The euthanasia method selected should ideally result in rapid loss of consciousness, followed by respiratory and cardiac arrest, and subsequent loss of brain function.4<\/a>,<\/sup>8<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The objective is to provide a \u2018quiet and easy death\u2019 8<\/a><\/sup>, while minimizing pain, distress, and discomfort.4<\/a>,<\/sup>23<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

The preferred method of avian euthanasia is typically an intravenous (IV) injection<\/a> of barbiturate.4<\/a>,<\/sup>37<\/a>,<\/sup>45<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Given that most avian patients presenting for veterinary care are fearful, stressed, or excited, sedation<\/a> or preferably general anesthesia<\/a> is recommended to address animal welfare concerns and reduce handling distress.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Personnel and owner considerations<\/strong><\/h2>\n

Personnel performing or assisting with euthanasia should be competent in recognizing normal avian behavior as well as signs of stress or fear<\/a>.4<\/a><\/sup> The ability to appropriately restrain the bird<\/a> is also important.4<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

The handler should also have a working knowledge of avian anatomy<\/a>. Key anatomical features include the absence of a diaphragm, which means that birds possess a coelomic cavity<\/a>, as well as the presence of air sacs<\/a> and pneumatized bones<\/a>. The role of sternal movement in ventilation<\/a> as well as the enhanced efficiency of the avian respiratory system must also be appreciated.4<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

The term \u2018euthanasia\u2019 is derived from Greek, meaning \u2018a good death\u2019. \u2018Dysthanasia\u2019 is a term used to describe the opposite 14<\/a><\/sup>, whereby there is pain or distress for the animal, improper technique, or anguish of the observers. Therefore, it is important to consider the welfare of the observers or participants as well as the animal. Research evaluating personnel assisting with laboratory rat euthanasia found that euthanasia methods involving minimal violence; little animal manipulation, and the least amount of blood were considered more acceptable.28<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

It is recognized that the euthanasia of small birds, especially in front of their owners, can be technically challenging.27<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

Some owners find euthanasia unacceptable. In such cases, comprehensive palliative care that supports a natural death may be a viable alternative.34<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Pre-visit anxiolytics<\/strong><\/h2>\n

Many pet birds are unaccustomed to handling and transport, and will present to the veterinary hospital in a stressed, fearful state. Pre-visit anxiolysis should ideally be provided to fearful or stressed pet birds or birds that would be expected to have a fear, anxiety, or stress score over three.21<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

Benzodiazepines are most commonly used to reduce avian anxiety.7<\/a>,<\/sup>25<\/a>,<\/sup>36<\/a>,<\/sup>38<\/a>,<\/sup>43<\/a><\/sup> Research to guide dosing is ongoing, however, midazolam (1-3 mg\/kg) can be given intranasally to most medium-sized pet birds at home by the owner just before the veterinary visit, provided the bird is used to handling and trained to accept this route of administration (Fig 2).7<\/a>,<\/sup>35<\/a>,<\/sup>36<\/a><\/sup> Although the dose of intranasal midazolam may need to be increased in smaller species, such as canaries (Serinus canaria<\/em>) and budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus<\/em>), to 4-6 mg\/kg 11<\/a>,<\/sup>35<\/a>,<\/sup>36<\/a><\/sup>, the author finds that 1-3 mg\/kg tends to be equally effective in small, debilitated birds. As a general rule, lower doses are advised for sicker birds and higher doses are advised for birds that are more fearful or unaccustomed to human handling or transport.<\/p>\n

\"Intranasal<\/a>

Figure 2<\/b>. Intranasal administration of midazolam to a blue-fronted Amazon parrot (Amazona aestiva<\/em>). Photo credit: Aneesa Malik. Click image to enlarge.\u00a0<\/em><\/small><\/p><\/div>\n

 <\/p>\n

Currently, there are no oral pre-visit sedatives routinely given to birds. The use of gabapentin and tramadol are being explored.22<\/a><\/sup> One oral dose of trazadone in pigeons (Columba livia<\/em>) at 30 mg\/kg resulted in plasma drug concentrations consistent with therapeutic effects in humans and dogs, however, no sedative or adverse effects were noted, and further research is needed to understand its clinical effects.17<\/a><\/sup> A single dose of trazadone (50 mg\/kg) in Hispaniolan Amazon parrots (Amazona ventralis<\/em>) resulted in plasma concentrations comparable to other species studied with no adverse effects, however, behavioral effects were not reported.46<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0A variety of sedatives and antidepressants have also been evaluated in chicks that were socially separated as a model for panic disorder.30<\/a><\/sup> Phenelzine (3.125-25.0 mg\/kg), alprazolam (0.065-0.5 mg\/kg), imipramine (1.0-15.0 mg\/kg) and clonidine (0.1-0.25 mg\/kg) attenuated distress vocalizations without significant sedation in cockerels, whereas buspirone (2.5-10.0 mg\/kg) and trazodone (0.1-3.0 mg\/kg) did not.30<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

Desmarchelier has described the use of psychopharmacological drugs in exotic animals, including tranquilizing agents, tricyclic antidepressants, and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors.16<\/a><\/sup> There has also been limited behavioral pharmacology research in pet parrots with behavioral disorders.48<\/a><\/sup> Gabapentin, trazadone, paroxetine and amitriptyline have pharmacokinetic studies in some avian species.16<\/a><\/sup> To the authors\u2019 knowledge there is no research on the use of these drugs for pre-visit anxiolysis.<\/p>\n

The use of some level of anxiolysis or sedation prior to anesthesia and euthanasia is also recommended not just for the animal’s welfare but it can make the euthanasia transition smoother and less distressing for the owner.9<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

General anesthesia
\n<\/strong><\/h2>\n

General anesthesia is typically recommended for euthanizing an avian patient, as it minimizes the risk of spontaneous arousal that can occur with sedation, especially when the bird is stimulated.7<\/a><\/sup> General anesthesia also allows the placement of an IV catheter<\/a>, which may be desirable if the owner would like to be present for euthanasia (Fig 3).<\/p>\n

\"Use<\/a>

Figure 3<\/b>. Use of a pre-placed intravenous catheter, as shown in this sedated chicken, is recommended when the owner will be present during euthanasia. Photo credit: Aneesa Malik. Click image to enlarge<\/em>.<\/small><\/p><\/div>\n

 <\/p>\n

General anesthesia is associated with a loss of consciousness. A deep plane of anesthesia<\/a> suitable for euthanasia is often associated with complete muscle relaxation, absent reflex limb withdrawal on toe or wing pinch, with a slow or absent corneal reflex.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\t\n\n\t
Table 1. Signs of loss of consciousness in birds<\/b>10<\/a><\/sup><\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
\u2022\tLoss of the righting reflex
\n\u2022\tLoss of posture and muscle tone, drooping wings
\n\u2022\tAbsence of rhythmic breathing
\n\u2022\tLoss of palpebral reflex and spontaneous blinking
\n\u2022\tAbsence of vocalization
\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n\n

 <\/p>\n

When evaluating euthanasia from an animal welfare perspective, the time between consciousness and unconsciousness, often referred to as \u201clatency to unconsciousness\u201d is more important than the time it takes to achieve brain death. A short interval to insensibility is preferable, to minimize any potential suffering.5<\/a><\/sup> If the bird is completely unconscious, there is also less concern over the method of euthanasia with regards to animal welfare.<\/p>\n

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Injectable agents<\/h3>\n

There are a number of anesthetic agents that can be given by IV, intramuscular (IM)<\/a>, or intranasal routes in the bird, such as alpha-2 agonists, ketamine, alfaxalone, and\/or opioids (Table 2).7<\/a><\/sup> Although the practitioner is advised to consult species-specific formularies for appropriate doses and combinations, it\u2019s important to note that doses used before euthanasia are often higher, sometimes even doubled.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\t\n\n\t\n\t
Table 2. Common injectable anesthetic\/sedative drug combinations administered to avian patients before euthanasia<\/b><\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
\u2022\tMedetomidine with an opioid, such as butorphanol
\n\u2022\tMedetomidine and ketamine +\/- butorphanol
\n\u2022\tMedetomidine, ketamine, midazolam, butorphanol
\n\u2022\tMidazolam, ketamine, butorphanol
\n\u2022\tAlfaxalone +\/- an opioid
\n\u2022\tXylazine +\/- ketamine*
\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
*High doses of xylazine are well-tolerated, whereas ketamine appears to cause more discomfort on injection (Angela Lennox, email communication, January 2025)<\/small><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n\n

 <\/p>\n

The author has had success with IM midazolam-ketamine-butorphanol in garden bird species, such as pigeons and passerines (Table 3).11<\/a>,<\/sup>26<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\t\n\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t
Table 3. Intramuscular regimens recommended for garden bird species prior to euthanasia<\/b>*<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
Drug<\/b><\/td>Dosage for sedation<\/b><\/td>Dosage for anesthesia**<\/b><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Midazolam<\/td>0.5 \u2013 1.5 mg\/kg<\/td>1 - 3 mg\/kg<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Ketamine<\/td>5 - 10 mg\/kg<\/td>5 \u2013 10 mg\/kg<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Butorphanol<\/td>1-2 mg\/kg<\/td>2-4 mg\/kg<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
*Check species-specific doses when possible, as individual doses and responses will vary<\/small>
\n**Ren\u00e9e Schott, email communication, July 2024<\/small><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n\n

 <\/p>\n

The perception of being unable to escape restraint and being administered an injection has the potential to cause pain, discomfort, and\/or distress.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Inhalation agents<\/h3>\n

The rapid loss of consciousness that can be achieved in birds with inhalation agents, such as sevoflurane or isoflurane, must be weighed against potentially serious disadvantages. The physical properties of halocarbon anesthetics, such as hypoxia, can cause distress. Isoflurane has also been shown to be an irritant to mucous membranes in humans.18<\/a><\/sup> Additionally, all inhaled agents have the potential to cause distress because their effects are not immediate.12<\/a>,<\/sup>40<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The agent must be delivered via face mask or induction chamber; face mask is often preferable due to the disadvantages of chamber induction, outlined below.<\/p>\n

FACE MASK INDUCTION
\n<\/strong><\/p>\n

Face masks can be adapted to the size of the bird\u2019s head using conforming bandage or a latex glove (Fig 4). In some species with long beaks, face masks can be created from plastic bottles (Fig 5). The patient can be securely wrapped in a towel during face mask induction.<\/p>\n

\"Wood<\/a>

Figure 4<\/b>. Juvenile wood pigeon (Columba palumbus<\/em>) masked down with isoflurane and oxygen. A conforming bandage has been used to make an appropriate size hole for the bird\u2019s head. Photo credit: Aneesa Malik. Click image to enlarge<\/em>.<\/small><\/p><\/div>\n

\"A<\/a>

Figure 5<\/b>.\u00a0An inhalant anesthetic agent is delivered to a Gentoo penguin (Pygoscelis papua<\/em>) using a plastic bottle that has been modified to serve as a face mask. Photo credit:\u00a0 Dr. Lorenzo Crosta.<\/small><\/p><\/div>\n

 <\/p>\n

CHAMBER INDUCTION
\n<\/strong><\/p>\n

A dark, covered anesthetic induction chamber may be an option for wild birds that are more stressed by human restraint; however, this technique has several disadvantages. Birds are at risk for further distress or injury if they flap or become disorientated during induction, although padding the sides of the chamber with towels may reduce this risk. Birds also rapidly regain consciousness once removed from the chamber, and must be maintained on a face mask anyway. Additionally, the release of waste anesthetic gases into the environment presents a potential risk for staff and the owner, when present.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Euthanasia agents<\/strong><\/h2>\n

Once the bird is unconscious, various euthanasia agents can be selected.<\/p>\n

Inhaled agents<\/h3>\n

Inhaled anesthetics delivered at high concentrations, such as sevoflurane and isoflurane, can be used as a sole method of euthanasia in select avian patients (Table 4).4<\/a><\/sup> Exposure to gas anesthetics also produces minimal tissue dam\u00adage and results in the least amount of tissue artifact for birds that must be submitted for necropsy.4<\/a>,<\/sup>33<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\t\n\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t
Table 4. Considerations for use of inhalant anesthesia for euthanasia of avian patients 4<\/a>,26<\/a>,38<\/a><\/sup><\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
Body size<\/td>Consider inhalant anesthetics in relatively small patients or species in which venipuncture may be technically challenging.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Breath holding<\/td>Diving birds and waterfowl may not respond as readily to inhalation anesthesia due to their breath-holding ability.38<\/sup> Induction of anesthesia and time to loss of consciousness may be greatly prolonged. Therefore, injectable anesthetic agents will often be more successful in these species.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Food animals<\/td>Inhaled anesthetics are unsuitable for use in food-producing animals, because large amounts of drug are absorbed, creating potential tissue residues.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Sense of smell<\/td>Pungent inhaled vapor could be predicted to cause greater distress in avian species known to have a good sense of smell, like vultures or condors (carrion eaters).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
Fear, anxiety, or stress<\/td>

Volatile anesthetic agents are irritating to mucous membranes, and the perception of being restrained or unable to escape while being administered anesthetic gases can also cause distress (see below). For instance, inhalant induction has been shown to be stressful for human children.12,40<\/sup><\/p><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n\n

 <\/p>\n

In laboratory settings, inhaled euthanasia agents include carbon dioxide (CO\u2082), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen (N\u2082), and argon noble (Ar), which induce hypoxia by displacing oxygen.4<\/a>,<\/sup>42<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Studies in turkeys found high CO\u2082 concentrations aversive 42<\/a><\/sup>, while Ar or CO\u2082-Ar mixtures were generally tolerated.42<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0In broiler chicks, gases with 90% Ar or N\u2082 in CO\u2082 and 80% Ar in CO\u2082 were least aversive, though all caused some distress.44<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

A study in zebra finches (Taeniopygia guttata<\/em>) found CO\u2082 (80% chamber displacement rate) led to the fastest respiratory arrest but caused open-mouth breathing.45<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Isoflurane chamber induction followed by intracoelomic sodium pentobarbital had the longest respiratory arrest time and was linked to distress behaviors like open-mouth breathing, wing flapping, and escape attempts.45<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Injectable anesthetic agents<\/h3>\n

BARBITURATES<\/p>\n

All barbituric acid derivatives used for anesthesia are considered acceptable for euthanasia when administered IV. Barbiturates depress the central nervous system and induce anesthesia, beginning with the cerebral cortex. With an overdose, a deep plane of barbiturate anesthesia can lead to apnea and hypoxemia, followed by cardiac arrest.4<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

Sodium pentobarbital is the most commonly used and widely accepted barbiturate.4<\/a><\/sup> Administer sodium pentobarbital by\u00a0IV injection<\/a> (150 mg\/kg IV) once the bird is adequately sedated or anesthetized.26<\/a><\/sup> When injected IV, sodium pentobarbital will illicit four stages<\/a>: voluntary and involuntary excitement, surgical anesthesia, followed by medullary paralysis.29<\/a><\/sup> It is recommended to give the first one-third slowly to further anesthetize the patient.6<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

Although barbiturates are considered the gold standard for animal euthanasia 11<\/a><\/sup>, adverse effects can occur. Agonal gasping is sometimes seen with sodium pentobarbital.26<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0This caustic solution also causes pain and acts slowly when given by extravascular routes.26<\/a><\/sup> When administered IV, barbiturates can also cause artifactual changes on histopathology, such as erythrolysis, edema, and coagulative tissue changes.33<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

T- 61<\/p>\n

T-61 is a mixture of an anesthetic agent (embrutamide), a paralytic agent (mebozonium iodide), and a local anesthetic (tetracaine hydrochloride) that works by inducing unconsciousness, then cardiopulmonary collapse, followed by death through hypoxia.4<\/a>,<\/sup>11<\/a><\/sup> T-61 does not cause terminal gasping, as seen with sodium pentobarbital, however, similarly to barbiturates, T-61 can cause histopathological changes on postmortem exam.39<\/a><\/sup> There are also concerns over the possible onset of paralysis prior to unconsciousness when dosage and injection instructions are not closely followed. T-61 was voluntarily withdrawn from the U.S. market due to the distress of personnel euthanizing dogs that appeared to experience pain and suffering prior to death.4<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

T-61 is considered acceptable in birds when administered IV by trained personnel.1<\/a>,<\/sup>11<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0A study evaluating T-61 (0.03 mg\/kg IV) in chickens did not find signs of pain or distress within the time frame to \u2018insensibility\u2019 (10.5 seconds from the start of the injection and 4 seconds after the end of the injection). Therefore, birds were not conscious during cardiac or circulatory arrest.5<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

POTASSIUM CHLORIDE<\/p>\n

Intravenous administration of potassium chloride (KCl) causes serum levels of potassium to rise so high that heart function ceases. The primary benefit of IV KCl is that it does not cause artifactual changes on postmortem exam.41<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0A dose of 3 mEq\/kg IV has been recommended for birds that will be submitted for histopathological assessment.41<\/sup><\/p>\n

The patient receiving a KCL infusion should always be maintained at a deep plane of anesthesia.11<\/a>,<\/sup>41<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The cardiac arrest which is induced is presumably painful, and seizures and muscle spasm can also occur with KCl administration.11<\/a>,<\/sup>41<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0In a study comparing two IV doses of KCl in birds anesthetized with isoflurane, one bird given 3 mEq\/kg exhibited mild vocalization.41<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0At the higher dose (10 mEq\/kg), five out of six birds exhibited involuntary muscle tremors.41<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

<\/a><\/p>\n

Routes of administration for injectable agents<\/strong><\/h2>\n

The euthanasia agent selected can be delivered by a variety of methods.<\/p>\n

Intravenous<\/h3>\n

A common site of IV injection<\/a> in birds is the jugular vein<\/a> (Fig 6). The right jugular vein tends to be larger and is easily accessible in many species, even tiny birds. The jugular vein is less accessible in pigeons and doves (Columbiformes). Columbids have a diffuse venous plexus<\/a> in this region that can obscure clear visualization of the jugular vein 13<\/a><\/sup>; however, jugular venipuncture is possible and reliable in these species. Additional peripheral IV sites<\/strong> include the medial metatarsal vein<\/a> and the basilic vein<\/a> (Fig 7, Fig 8).<\/p>\n

\"Visualizing<\/a>

Figure 6<\/b>. Visualizing the jugular vein in a sedated magpie (Pica pica<\/em>). Photo credit:\u00a0 Aneesa Malik. Click image to enlarge<\/em>.<\/small><\/p><\/div>\n

\"Injection<\/a>

Figure 7.<\/strong> Injection of the medial metatarsal vein as it passes over the medial aspect of the intertarsal joint or \u201chock\u201d in an anesthetized gull. Click image to enlarge<\/em>. Photo credit: Aneesa Malik. <\/small><\/p><\/div>\n

\"Injection<\/a>

Figure 8<\/b>. Injection of the basilic or ulnar vein as it passes over the medial surface of the elbow in an anesthetized pigeon (Columba livia<\/em>). Click image to enlarge<\/em>. Photo credit: Aneesa Malik<\/small><\/p><\/div>\n

<\/a>
\nAnother peripheral venous site for administration of euthanasia solution is the occipital sinus<\/strong>. This sinus can be accessed by holding the head and neck of the anesthetized bird at a right angle, to expose the space between the dorsal base of the skull and the first cervical vertebrae.49<\/a><\/sup>,<\/sup>50<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The needle is carefully inserted along the median plane using a 21-25-gauge needle at a 30\u00b0 to 45\u00b0 angle (Video 1, Video 2, Fig 9).49<\/a><\/sup>,<\/sup>50<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0The depth of needle entry will vary with the species and size of the bird. An approximately 2-3 mm entry may be required for budgerigars, whereas a large Muscovy duck may require 10-12 mm to access the sinus.49<\/a><\/sup>,<\/sup>50<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0Angle the needle so that it passes just underneath the supraoccipital bone and into the dura mater. Slight resistance may be felt when the needle enters the dura. Anesthesia is essential, as many birds may resist being positioned correctly. Movement can cause the needle to penetrate the skull and\/or brain.50<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n