An ongoing topic of study in our lab has been contrafreeloading — working for food (or, in the case of humans, some other reward) that could simultaneously be obtained for free. Contrafreeloading is pretty much unexpected and any evidence of it is remarkable (Menzel, 1991): Why would anyone work for something if they didn’t need to do so? As it turns out, almost every species tested — except domestic cats! — contrafreeloads to some extent, depending on the task and the individual.

A few years ago, I wrote about our study comparing contrafreeloading in African greys and kea parrots. For those of who have not read that blog, I’ll summarize briefly. The main point is that the task is quite “conditional”: A particular individual may contrafreeload on one task but not another, and (as we’ll see shortly) the type of task may be species-related.

One of my students, Gabriella Smith, proposed that contrafreeloading in nonhumans would be more likely to occur if the task is fun so that the subjects get the double reward of doing something they enjoy and getting some food they would also like (Smith et al., 2021). We tested her theory with several African grey parrots and found that, as hypothesized, considerable individual variation existed both among birds and tasks — what some birds thought was fun, others viewed as work and avoided the effort.

Kea Parrots Added To The Mix

She then had the idea and the opportunity to work with colleagues from New Zealand to test whether an ostensibly more playful species, the kea parrot, would be more likely to contrafreeload. Again, our hypothesis was somewhat supported — the kea had considerable individual variation and contrafreeloaded a bit more than the African greys on one task (involving popping lids from small cups), but pretty much completely refused to contrafreeload on a task involving de-shelling a nut (Smith et al., 2022).

In the wild, kea parrots do not de-shell nuts, but we chose the task so that we would have a direct comparison with the African greys, and because we thought that, as a novel task, kea might find it interesting and fun. Unfortunately, such was not the case.

In Come The Cockatoos

But what if we could work with a playful species for whom nut-shelling was a common behavior? And where would we find enough subjects to do a meaningful study? Well, as it turned out, during COVID one of my other students, Alana Carroll, had taken a year’s leave of absence from Harvard and worked part-time at a parrot rescue — where they had four umbrella cockatoos!

No scientific studies had evaluated their playfulness, but she had worked with them for a year, reviewed lots of online videos that showed extensive playful behavior, and we found that they are closely related to other cockatoos who had been studied and whose playfulness was documented (Auersberg et al., 2014, 2015). Upon her return to school, we contacted the facility, and they agreed to let her test these birds during holiday and intersession breaks. How would these birds behave?

The data she collected only partially supported our hypothesis (Caroll & Pepperberg, 2024). We did see, as expected, great individual variation: One cockatoo, Poly, contrafreeloaded almost 71% of the time, whereas another, JJ, barely did so at all, at 4% of trials. Teddy Bear was at 25%, and Dudley was close to 58%. However, in terms of the overall relative amounts of contrafreeloading, no significant difference existed between the African greys and the cockatoos; nevertheless, more of the cockatoos contrafreeloaded at over 50% than occurred for the African greys.

Issues In Testing

Interestingly, some issues may have affected the cockatoos’ responses that were not present for the greys. The first involved housing conditions; the second involved possible boredom.

Unlike the African greys, who were all individually housed — though all could interact with other parrots — Dudley and JJ had arrived at the rescue co-housed and were kept in that situation. Dudley was clearly the dominant bird, and on occasion had stolen JJ’s reward (which was replaced). We surmise that JJ’s low level of contrfreeloading therefore might have been a consequence of his being the subordinate bird: Choosing the already de-shelled nut and eating it quickly made the most sense. If he took the nut with the shell and had to spend time de-shelling it, Dudley would have a chance to steal it! And even though Dudley was dominant, maybe he thought JJ might try to steal his nut, which could be a reason for his not contrafreeloading extensively.  Of course, Teddy Bear, who was not co-housed, didn’t contrafreeload all that much. Maybe, unlike Poly, he and Dudley just weren’t all that interested in the task.

As for boredom: Well, Poly, the one bird that did contrafreeload extensively, decreased her behavior at a statistically significant rate after about two-thirds of the sessions had been completed. Maybe she became tired of the task? Moreover, at the same time, she started to want to interact with Alana a lot more, apparently losing interest in the food overall in favor of social interaction.

Nevertheless, given that contrafreeloading is a behavior that is not expected to exist at all, our findings are of considerable interest. We wonder if we could find a task that the cockatoos — or other birds — might enjoy more, and if that might affect the results?

A Foraging Lesson For Us

As for the take-home message for our companion animals — given that contrafreeloading and foraging behavior in captivity are related — don’t give up if your parrot doesn’t like the first foraging toy you provide; keep trying! You might simply have not found the one your bird finds enjoyable.

References

Auersperg, A. M. I., Oswald, N., Domanegg, M., Gajdon, G. K., & Bugnyar, T. (2014). Unrewarded object combinations in captive parrots. Animal Behavior and Cognition, 1(4), 470–488.

Auersperg, A. M. I., van Horik, J. O., Bugnyar, T., Kacelnik, A., Emery, N. J., & von Bayern, A. M. P. (2015). Combinatory actions during object play in psittaciformes (Diopsittaca nobilis, Pionites melanocephala, Cacatua goffini) and corvids (Corvus corax, C monedula, C moneduloides). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 129(1), 62–71.

Carroll, A., & Pepperberg, I.M. (2024). Contrafreeloading in umbrella cockatoos (Cacatua alba): Further evaluation of the play hypothesis. Advance online publication.

Menzel, E.W. (1991). Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes): Problem seeking versus the bird-in-hand, least-effort strategy. Primates, 32, 497–508.

Smith, G. E., Bastos, A. P. M., Chodorow, M., Taylor, A. H., & Pepperberg, I. M. (2022). Contrafreeloading in kea (Nestor notabilis) in comparison to Grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus). Scientific Reports, 12(1), Article 17415.

Smith, G. E., Greene, D., Hartsfield, L. A., & Pepperberg, I. M. (2021). Initial evidence for eliciting contrafreeloading in Grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus) via the opportunity for playful foraging. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 135(4), 516–533.

Griffin had his 29^th hatchday celebration in April. He is not really considered all that old for an African grey parrot, whose lifespan in captivity seems to be about 40-60 years—although my Dutch veterinarian colleague had one in his practice that lived to 99 (authenticated by the bird being passed down from one family member to another)!

Nevertheless, Griffin has been suffering from a “geriatric condition”—arthritis—for several years. The levels of pain seem to come and go, and we do whatever is possible to keep him happy and comfortable. We don’t know what worsens his condition; however, we suspect that sometimes when he feels particularly spry, he’ll overdo things—for example, climbing around his cage more than usual—which may trigger a painful episode.

Recently, Griffin had the worst flare-up ever since the condition was diagnosed. It was soon after his annual check-up, so the first thing we did was to call our vet to see if anything new had shown up on his standard tests. She suggested putting him on an anti-inflammatory drug and to call back if it didn’t provide some relief in 24 hrs. When that didn’t work, we took him in for X-rays and further tests, to ensure that it was arthritis and not something else.

“Birdie Bed Rest”

The diagnosis was indeed arthritis, but there was also the possibility of some nerve issues, so he was put on a different medication. which causes him to take several naps each day! He was prescribed a busy regimen of treatments—including “birdie bed rest.” The latter basically means that he now has to sleep in his backpack carrier, so that there is no chance of him falling off a perch overnight and injuring himself. He actually looks pretty happy there! (See figure).

Griffin also gets two sessions a day with his Assisi Loop (a ring that produces a targeted pulsed electromagnetic field that helps speed healing for inflammatory and neurological conditions); laser therapy once a day, which also reduces inflammation and speeds healing; and ice pack therapy twice a day, again, to reduce inflammation and pain. We’ve also padded his perches with vet wrap or moleskin, and the railing around his cage with a bird-safe felt. In between treatments, he gets lots of tickles and attention!

Needless to say, Athena is not particularly thrilled with the state of the lab…we barely have time for her experimental trials and, although we try to give her as much attention and tickling as Griffin and lots of new toys, it is clear that Griffin is the center of interest these days. She can be quite vociferous!

Thankfully, Griffin is doing much better now, but he is clearly not yet back to normal. He has regained some use of the sore leg and foot, even scratching his head himself now. And he’ll put some pressure on the sore limb from time to time when on my hand, a perch, or a flat surface. One of the experiments we were doing with him before the flare-up requires that he shift his position on either a perch or the desk between choices in a single trial; we try to do one trial each day to track his ability to move. However, no luck on that so far…

We’ve been told that early detection of arthritis is important, because the condition is easier to treat before inflammation takes a strong hold. Birds, however, are so good about hiding pain that early detection of a flare-up is no simple matter. Nevertheless, keep an eye out and notice if your bird is consistently favoring one foot (e.g., fails to perch or grip tightly), if the feet are warmer than usual, or if the bird lists a bit to one side…all are symptoms, so get your bird checked out ASAP!

The goal for all of us is to understand our beautiful birds and to learn how to help them become better at thriving in their own wild communities. This is essential to avoid the catastrophic loss of some of our beautiful species of every class of bird, particularly our beloved colorful parrot species.

Earlier, a study undertaken by Chicago’s famed Field Museum, headed by Chad M. Eliason and assisted by five other colleagues from institutions in Belgium and the Netherlands, was intended to discover if and how location plays a role in feather coloration. The study also hoped to explain the possible reality that the connection between ecogeographic and climate change influences feather colors and iridescence. For this study, a long review of a whopping 9,409 species helped explore the possibilities of location and coloration as a direct impact.

The Tropics Spur Iridescense

One aspect of the study uncovered that rapid movement toward tropical locations spurred the proliferation of iridescent species. Just as impactful were the differentiation between structural colors (iridescence, as when colors appear to change under circumstances — like feathers that display in a color but when becoming wet and with light, look like a different color variation), and pigmentary colors that do not change color under any circumstances. It was determined that all birds share common evolutionary ancestry that were exclusively iridescent. Certainly, it is the tropics where the quite colorful birds are found. Go further north and birds become more muted in appearance.

What The Data Reveals

As the researchers developed their tree of birds that became an invaluable dataset, they discovered that 415 bird species mostly originated elsewhere, bringing their iridescent colorations with them to the tropics to evolutionarily spur that trait there. They closely examined thousands of photographs and fossils of species of birds, explored their origins and migration pathways.

As more data were accumulated, the researchers concluded that the first birds were, in fact, likely iridescent by nature and that structural coloration today is an evolutionary trait carried on by DNA. The researchers are still unclear as to how and why iridescence evolved at the beginning, but as more studies like this push out the gate, that answer may soon materialize.

Still A Mystery

It is thought that weather impacts could be a part. Some birds change colors as humidity changes and so this could factor in as one reason for influence and any potential natural assistance changes might give the bird in coping with weather changes.

This study, in its infancy, is a potentially vast one with strong elements for further discoveries. See an abstract of the study.

“Beakiation” is a newly coined word to describe how birds in the wild use their beaks to move from tree to tree — similar to how monkeys do with their limbs.

A recent study was launched by the New York Institute of Technology (NYIT), with work done by Edwin Dickinson, Melody W. Young, and Michael C. Granatosky. The study involved four rosy-faced lovebirds. A runway was set up to give the birds a space to move about as they pleased. The purpose was to watch how the birds used their beaks to facilitate movement. The birds performed admirably by often using their beaks to grasp a tree limb while releasing their feet from support surfaces. They moved across spaces by grasping with their beak and “swinging” to the next location.

Faster Movement In Dense Spaces

The reasoning behind this behavioral pattern is that it enables faster movement in tree-dense areas. Flight involves a set of motor movements that require more energy than swinging requires. It also helps birds move faster than ground-based predators, much like monkeys do to evade their predators.

Birds’ beaks are amazingly strong, with a grip that can hold many times the bird’s weight. The upper beak has a hinge between the bill and the skull that allows the bird to amply flex that region. This becomes helpful — much like an extra hand — when grasping a branch to allow the bird to pull itself up. The upper beak is used as a propelling force to give the bird extra power in movement and lift. Taking nothing away from the power of the lower beak, it is clear that each part operates independently of the other to achieve great physical feats.

In the wild, using their beaks to travel more effectively helps parrots avoid ground travel, where predators might lurk. They can do as the monkeys do to get from place to place.

If you have further interest, read the original study and observation of parrot movement. Also, watch this YouTube video showing lovebirds in action.

In honor of Earth Day, let’s take a look at the many ways birds, including parrots, play vital roles in maintaining healthy ecosystems. Our avian counterparts contribute to the environment in several important ways:

Seed Dispersal

Many birds, including parrots, play a significant role in dispersing seeds, especially in tropical and subtropical regions, which support tropical forests and other habitats. By consuming fruits and nuts and traveling across large areas, parrots inadvertently deposit seeds in new locations through their droppings, which often contain intact seeds. This behavior aids in the growth and spread of many plant species, enhancing forest density and diversity, which are vital for ecosystem health and stability. Seed dispersal superstars include parrots like African greys, macaws, Amazon parrots, and cockatoos.

And bees aren’t the only pollinators! Birds that feed on flowers’ nectar, most notably hummingbirds, help pollinate their environment. When lories and lorikeets use their brush tongues to feed on flowers, pollen collects on their foreheads and throats. When they move to another flower of the same species, they inadvertently transfer the pollen to another flower. Pollen transfer enables seed production and supports the plant’s reproduction cycle.

Pest Control

Birds consume a large number of insects and in doing so act as nature’s pest control. This natural form of pest management helps reduce the spread of disease and can help agriculture by reducing heavy reliance on chemical pesticides. Some notable bird species that are particularly effective at controlling pests include:

• Swallows & Martins: These birds feed almost exclusively on flying insects, including mosquitoes, flies, and moths.
• Chickadees & Titmice: In temperate regions, these small birds consume vast amounts of caterpillars and other insects during the breeding season, helping to protect forests and gardens from pest infestations.
• Bluebirds: Their diet includes grasshoppers, beetles, and larvae, making them beneficial for natural pest control in gardens and agricultural fields.
• Owls: Barn owls and other owl species help control rodent populations.
• Purple Martins: These birds consume large quantities of flying insects, including those considered pests.
• Sparrows & Finches: We see them every day but did you know that these birds feed on a variety of ground-based insects and seeds and in doing so help to control the spread of weed seeds and harmful bugs?

Ecosystem Indicators

Birds are often considered indicators of the ecological health of an environment. Changes in their populations can indicate changes in the ecosystem, such as pollution levels, climate change, and habitat loss. Monitoring bird populations helps conservationists detect and address environmental issues early. Here are a few bird species that are considered ecosystem indicators around the world:

• Puffins: Puffins are often used as indicators in marine ecosystems, particularly in the North Atlantic. Changes in their diet and breeding success can reflect shifts in fish populations and ocean health.
• Arctic Terns: With the longest known annual migration, Arctic Terns are indicators of changes in marine ecosystems across the globe. Their breeding success is linked to the availability of fish driven by sea temperature changes.
• Common Loons: Used as indicators in freshwater ecosystems, particularly in North America. Their presence and reproductive success are sensitive to changes in water quality and fish populations.
• Forest Owls (like the Spotted Owl and the Barred Owl) – These owls indicate the health of forest ecosystems. Their population dynamics can reflect changes in forest structure and prey availability, often impacted by logging and land use changes.

Through their diverse behaviors and ecological roles, birds are integral to environmental health and the sustainability of various ecosystems around the world!

A recent study further explores tablet use in companion birds by creating a unique game that encouraged balloon-popping (displayed as a large single red dot) in a virtual setting. The parrot, intrigued by the appearing red dots on the screen, put their eyes close to the display, and used their tongue and beaks to “pop the dot.” The simplistic game was developed to test how parrots might accept interaction with technology as well as their tolerance for the same. The hope was to determine if that same technology could be further improved for the birds’ usage and benefit. If so, could better programming help birds improve their learning processes even further, much as human counterparts have over the years?

A Look At Screen Time

A presentation will be made to a large group known as the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM) in May of 2024. The peer-reviewed findings will give more insight to the overall animal studies that look to see how technologies can be beneficial to the lives of birds, dogs, and orcas.

The study involved caregivers for the birds, who assisted with cognitive stimulation for the birds by providing a tablet for 30 minutes a day. For three months, the caretakers monitored the birds’ activities while they were engaged with the tablet. The design of the study was to improve the bond that a bird has with their caregivers, and not whether they would simply engage with the games on their own.

During the study, it was discovered that some birds would be wholly devoted to the game, while others worked with their caregivers in a unified manner. One hoped-for benefit of tablet use and game playing is if it could potentially help distract some birds from feather-plucking or other self-destructive behaviors.

The study was headed by INTERACT Animal Lab investigator, Rebecca Kleinberger, who used 17 birds during the three months of activity. Two birds showed no interest in the tablet and so were removed from the study. One other bird showed bouts of anxiety during the study and was also relieved from activities. The remaining parrots were studied within homes by caregivers who followed a schedule of usage and provided praises of encouragement. The Northeastern University abstract from the study can be read here.