Clinical Pathology of Herptiles

Date: December 6, 2024; updated January 15, 2025

By: J. Jill Heatley, MS, DVM, DABVP (Avian Practice, Reptile & Amphibian Practice), DACZM

Keywords: , , , , , , , ,

Categories: Amphibians,  Lizard,  Reptiles & Amphibians,  Snake,  Turtles & Tortoises,  Resources & Education 

Photo:  Katie Lennox-Phillibeck/Dr. Angela Lennox

 

Abstract

Clinicopathologic evaluation of reptiles is useful for health assessment and monitoring. There are specific considerations when evaluating data from this taxonomic group, including sex, age, time of year/season, reproductive status, diet, captive versus wild, geographic location, methodology, and anticoagulant. This webinar describes hematology, biochemistry, and urinalysis features of reptiles and amphibians as well as clinical relevance.

Outline
  • Sample handling
  • Foundational comparative enzymology studies
  • Major blood/plasma/serum proteins
  • Acute phase reactants
  • Biomarkers for consideration
  • Symmetric dimethylarginine (SDMA)
  • Lactate
  • Bile acids
  • Ionized calcium

 

About the presenter

J. Jill Heatley is an Associate Professor in zoo medicine at Texas A&M University College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences. Dr. Heatley is board certified in avian medicine, reptile and amphibian medicine, as well as zoological medicine. She completed an internship in bird zoo and exotic animal medicine, a residency in zoological medicine, and a Master’s degree program at Louisiana State University. [MORE].

 

Webinar recording

 

Post-test

Take the brief post-test to earn 1 hour of continuing education credit. With a passing grade, you will receive a continuing education certificate in jurisdictions that recognize AAVSB RACE approval.

Test your knowledge

 

Expert Q&A

Although most questions were addressed during the live event, remaining questions were answered by email and are shared below.

 

Any thoughts on formalin fixing blood cells for morphology?
Formalin fixing blood cells is a relatively newer thing for fish and invertebrates. [It] seems to work well, but I lack clinical info about reptiles with that [technique].

 

I’d like some references about acute protein and lactate!
The moderator, Dr. Christal Pollock, wrote:  This is not an exhaustive list, but many of the references related to Dr. Heatley’s discussion on acute phase proteins and lactate in herptiles are listed below.

 

How to differentiate Hepatozoon spp. and Haemogregarina spp. on slide?
Dr. Heatley shared the following information:  Actually, it appears I was wrong [during the live Q+A session] on “how to differentiate Hepatozoon spp and Haemogragarian on slides”. Hepatozoon is a hemogregarine , one of the four clades. (see Below)…One can differentiate leukocytozoon from hemoproteus by shape size and blood cells more often infected.

The attendee was also referred to the following excerpt from this open access article:  O’Donoghue P. Haemoprotozoa: Making biological sense of molecular phylogenies. Int J Parasitol Parasites Wildl. 2017 Aug 26;6(3):241-256. doi: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2017.08.007. PMID: 28913164; PMCID: PMC5582378.

7 Haemogregarines   7.1 Biodiversity
Four haemogregarine clades have been associated with acarine vectors (Hepatozoon A and B, Karyolysus, Hemolivia) and another two with leeches (Dactylosoma, Haemogregarina sensu stricto). …. Broad comparative studies with allied groups suggest that trypanosomatids and haemogregarines evolved first in aquatic and then terrestrial environments, as evidenced by extant lineages in invertebrates and their radiation in vertebrates. In contrast, haemosporidia and haemococcidia are thought to have evolved first in vertebrates from proto-coccidia and then incorporated invertebrate vectors. Piroplasms are thought to have evolved in ticks and diversified into mammals. More molecular studies are required on more parasite taxa to refine current thought, but ultimately transmission studies are mandated to determine the vectors for many haemoprotozoa.

 

RACE approval

This program was reviewed and approved by the American Association of Veterinary State Boards (AAVSB) Registry of Approved Continuing Education (RACE) program for 1 hour of continuing education credit for veterinarians and veterinary technicians in jurisdictions that recognize AAVSB RACE approval.

References

References

Taken from both the literature and directly from Dr. Heatley’s presentation.

Adamovicz L, Allender MC. Clinical pathology of box turtles (Terrapene spp.). Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract. 2022 Sep;25(3):735-754. doi: 10.1016/j.cvex.2022.05.004. PMID: 36122949.

Arguedas R, Steinberg D, Lewbart GA, et al. Haematology and biochemistry of the San Cristóbal lava lizard (Microlophus bivittatus). Conserv Physiol. 2018 Aug 17;6(1):coy046. doi: 10.1093/conphys/coy046. PMID: 30135738; PMCID: PMC6097591.

Dias dos Santos B, Xavier Alves A,  Netto dos Santos N, et al. Transport stress in bullfrog: Hematological and plasma biochemical responses. Aquaculture Reports. 2021; 19:100583. doi: 10.1016/j.aqrep.2020.100583.

Eshar D, Gancz AY, Avni-Magen N, et al. Selected plasma biochemistry analytes of healthy captive sulcata (African spurred) tortoises (Centrochelys sulcata). J Zoo Wildl Med. 2016 Dec;47(4):993-999. doi: 10.1638/2016-0051.1. PMID: 28080924.

Hofmann AF, Hagey LR, Krasowski MD. Bile salts of vertebrates: structural variation and possible evolutionary significance. J Lipid Res. 2010 Feb;51(2):226-46. doi: 10.1194/jlr.R000042. Epub 2009 Jul 28. PMID: 19638645; PMCID: PMC2803226.

Khaki Z, Rostami A, Esfandiary F. Evaluation of changes in serum biochemical parameters in zarudny’s spur-thighed tortoises (Testudo graeca zarudnyi) influenced by gender and season. BMC Vet Res. 2024 Jan 6;20(1):14. doi: 10.1186/s12917-023-03862-3. PMID: 38184545; PMCID: PMC10770966.

Enzymes

Adamovicz L, Griffioen J, Cerreta A, Lewbart GA, Allender MC. Tissue enzyme activities in free-living Eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina carolina). J Zoo Wildl Med. 2019 Mar 1;50(1):45-54. doi: 10.1638/2018-0079. PMID: 31120661.

Bogan J, Mitchell MA. Characterizing tissue enzyme activities of Cuban tree frogs (Osteopilus septentrionalis). Journal of Herpetological Medicine and Surgery. 2017; 27(1-2):22-28. doi:10.5818/1529-9651-27.1-2.22.

Petrosky KY, Knoll JS, Innis C. Tissue enzyme activities in Kemp’s Ridley turtles (Lepidochelys kempii). J Zoo Wildl Med. 2015 Sep;46(3):637-40. doi: 10.1638/2015-0014.1. PMID: 26352978.

Ramsay EC, Dotson TK. Tissue and serum enzyme activities in the yellow rat snake (Elaphe obsoleta quadrivitatta). Am J Vet Res. 1995 Apr;56(4):423-8. doi:  10.2460/ajvr.1995.56.04.423. PMID: 7785815.

Wagner RA, Wetzel R. Tissue and plasma enzyme activities in juvenile green iguanas. Am J Vet Res. 1999 Feb;60(2):201-3. doi:   10.2460/ajvr.1999.60.02.201. PMID: 10048552.

Hematology

Flanders AJ, Ossiboff RJ, Wellehan JFX Jr, et al. Presumptive heterophil extracellular traps recognized cytologically in nine reptile patients with inflammatory conditions. Vet Q. 2021 Dec;41(1):89-96. doi: 10.1080/01652176.2021.1873453. PMID: 33416037; PMCID: PMC7833021.

 

Lactate

Adamovicz L, Leister K, Byrd J, Phillips CA, Allender MC. Venous blood gas in free-living eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina carolina) and effects of physiologic, demographic and environmental factors. Conserv Physiol. 2018 Jul 25;6(1):coy041. doi: 10.1093/conphys/coy041. PMID: 30087775; PMCID: PMC6059089.

Cerreta AJ, Cannizzo SA, Smith DC, Minter LJ. Venous hematology, biochemistry, and blood gas analysis of free-ranging Eastern copperheads (Agkistrodon contortrix) and Eastern ratsnakes (Pantherophis alleghaniensis). PLoS One. 2020 Feb 14;15(2):e0229102. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0229102. PMID: 32059022; PMCID: PMC7021292.

Gleeson TT, Bennett AF. Acid-base imbalance in lizards during activity and recovery. J Exp Biol. 1982 Jun;98:439-53. doi: 10.1242/jeb.98.1.439. PMID: 7108439.

Gregory TM, Hubbard C, Schlake E, et al. Evaluation of prognostic indicators for injured turtles presenting to a wildlife clinic. J Zoo Wildl Med. 2022 Mar;53(1):209-213. doi: 10.1638/2020-0200. PMID: 35339167.

Innis CJ, Tlusty M, Merigo C, Weber ES. Metabolic and respiratory status of cold-stunned Kemp’s ridley sea turtles (Lepidochelys kempii). J Comp Physiol B. 2007 Aug;177(6):623-30. doi: 10.1007/s00360-007-0160-9. Epub 2007 Apr 13. PMID: 17431640.

Jackson DC. Hibernating without oxygen: physiological adaptations of the painted turtle. J Physiol. 2002 Sep 15;543(Pt 3):731-7. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.2002.024729. PMID: 12231634; PMCID: PMC2290531.

Jackson DC, Taylor SE, Asare VS, et al. Comparative shell buffering properties correlate with anoxia tolerance in freshwater turtles. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2007 Feb;292(2):R1008-15. doi: 10.1152/ajpregu.00519.2006. Epub 2006 Sep 28. PMID: 17008457.

Jackson DC, Ultsch GR. Physiology of hibernation under the ice by turtles and frogs. J Exp Zool A Ecol Genet Physiol. 2010 Jul 1;313(6):311-27. doi: 10.1002/jez.603. PMID: 20535765.

Klein K, Adamovicz L, Phillips CA, Allender MC. Blood lactate concentrations in Eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina carolina) following capture by a canine search team. J Zoo Wildl Med. 2021 Apr;52(1):259-267. doi: 10.1638/2020-0071. PMID: 33827184.

Lewbart GA, Hirschfeld M, Denkinger J, et al. Blood gases, biochemistry, and hematology of Galapagos green turtles (Chelonia mydas). PLoS One. 2014 May 13;9(5):e96487. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0096487. PMID: 24824065; PMCID: PMC4019482.

Merkel J, Chinnadurai SK. Diagnostic use of lactate in exotic animals. Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract. 2022 Sep;25(3):585-596. doi: 10.1016/j.cvex.2022.05.006. PMID: 36122941.

Molinaro HG, Anderson GS, Gruny L, Sperou ES, Heard DJ. Use of blood lactate in assessment of manual capture techniques of zoo-housed crocodilians. Animals (Basel). 2022 Feb 8;12(3):397. doi: 10.3390/ani12030397. PMID: 35158720; PMCID: PMC8833426.

Warren DE, Jackson DC. Lactate metabolism in anoxic turtles: an integrative review. J Comp Physiol B. 2008 Feb;178(2):133-48. doi: 10.1007/s00360-007-0212-1. Epub 2007 Oct 17. PMID: 17940776.

Withers PC, Lea M, Solberg TC, Baustian M, Hedrick M. Metabolic fates of lactate during recovery from activity in an anuran amphibian, Bufo americanus. Journal of Experimental Zoology. 1988; 246(3):236-243. doi: 10.1002/jez.1402460303.

Protein

Evans GO. Plasma albumin measurements in New Zealand white rabbits. World Rabbit Science. 1994;2(1):25-7. doi: 10.4995/wrs.1994.214.

Flower JE, Byrd J, Cray C, Allender MC. Plasma electrophoretic profiles and hemoglobin binding protein reference intervals in the eastern box turtle (Terrapene carolina carolina) and influences of age, sex, season, and location. J Zoo Wildl Med. 2014 Dec;45(4):836-42. doi: 10.1638/2014-0035.1. PMID: 25632671.

Gicking JC, Foley AM, Harr KE, Raskin RE, Jacobson E. Plasma protein electrophoresis of the Atlantic loggerhead sea turtle, Carretta carretta. Journal of Herpetological Medicine and Surgery. 2004;14 (3): 13–18. doi:  10.5818/1529-9651.14.3.13.

Hawkey C, Hart MG. An analysis of the incidence of hyperfibrinogenaemia in birds with bacterial infections. Avian Pathol. 1988;17(2):427-32. doi: 10.1080/03079458808436460. PMID: 18766699.

Laube A, Altherr B, Clauss M, Hatt JM. Reference intervals for bile acids and protein electrophoresis in plasma of captive panther chameleons (Furcifer pardalis):  A first approach. Journal of Herpetological Medicine and Surgery. 2018; 28 (3-4): 99–106. doi: 10.5818/17-12-139.1.

Lock B, Castro L, Mitchell M, McCaskill L, Fleming G. Protein electrophoresis values in captive adult male Nile crocodiles (Crocodilus niloticus) over time. Journal of Herpetological Medicine and Surgery. 2014; 24 (1-2): 20–27. doi:  10.5818/1529-9651-24.1.20.

Majorek KA, Porebski PJ, Dayal A, et al. Structural and immunologic characterization of bovine, horse, and rabbit serum albumins. Mol Immunol. 2012 Oct;52(3-4):174-82. doi: 10.1016/j.molimm.2012.05.011. Epub 2012 Jun 6. PMID: 22677715; PMCID: PMC3401331.

Moore AR, Allender MC, Mitchell MA, MacNeill AL. Evaluation of plasma fibrinogen concentration as a diagnostic indicator of inflammation in red-eared sliders (Trachemys scripta elegans). J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2015 Jan 15;246(2):245-53. doi: 10.2460/javma.246.2.245. PMID: 25554942.

Nurdiansyah R, Rifa’i M. A comparative analysis of serum albumin from different species to determine a natural source of albumin that might be useful for human therapy. Journal of Taibah University Medical Sciences. 2016 Jun 1;11(3):243-9. doi:  10.1016/j.jtumed.2016.04.003.

Packard GC, Packard MJ. Natural freeze-tolerance in hatchling painted turtles? Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol. 2003 Feb;134(2):233-46. doi: 10.1016/s1095-6433(02)00264-7. PMID: 12547253.

Parkinson L, Olea-Popelka F, Klaphake E, Dadone L, Johnston M. Establishment of a fibrinogen reference interval in ornate box turtles (Terrapene ornata ornata). J Zoo Wildl Med. 2016; 47(3):754-759. doi: 10.1638/2015-0225.1.

Rosenberg JF, Hernandez JA, Wellehan JFX Jr , et al. Diagnostic performance of inflammatory markers in gopher tortoises (Gopherus polyphemus). J Zoo Wildl Med. 2018 Sep;49(3):765-769. doi: 10.1638/2017-0211.1. PMID: 30212346.

Rosenberg JF, Wellehan JF, Crevasse SE, Cray C, Stacy NI. Reference intervals for erythrocyte sedimentation rate, lactate, fibrinogen, hematology, and plasma protein electrophoresis in clinically healthy captive gopher tortoises (Gopherus polyphemus). J Zoo Wildl Med. 2018 Sep;49(3):520-527. doi: 10.1638/2017-0183.1. PMID: 30212317.

Venipuncture

Bogan Jr JE, Dickerson F. Iatrogenic acute pseudo-pericardial tamponade in a dusky pygmy rattlesnake (Sistrurus miliarius barbouri). Journal of Herpetological Medicine and Surgery. 2021 Oct 1;31(3):179-83. doi: 10.5818/JHMS-D-20-00005.

Comolli JR, McHale B, Kehoe S, Mayer J. Cardiac tamponade following cardiocentesis in a ball python (Python regius). Journal of Herpetological Medicine and Surgery. 2022 Apr 1;32(2):116-8. doi:  10.5818/JHMS-D-21-00019.

Selleri P, Di Girolamo N. Cardiac tamponade following cardiocentesis in a cardiopathic boa constrictor imperator (Boa constrictor imperator). J Small Anim Pract. 2012 Aug;53(8):487. doi: 10.1111/j.1748-5827.2012.01232.x. Epub 2012 Jul 11. PMID: 22784300.

To cite this page:

Heatley JJ. Clinical pathology of reptiles. December 6, 2024. LafeberVet website. Available at  https://lafeber.com/vet/clinical-pathology-of-herptiles/