Article 

Pigeon Anatomy & Physiology: 15 Facts

Although pigeons and doves are a diverse group of birds, they do share some clinically significant anatomy and physiology, including a large, bilobed crop or ingluvies, crop milk production, as well as a vascular plexus found in the subcutis of pigeons. This post also touches on specialized anatomic features unique to fruit pigeons before summarizing some features of the columbid integumentary system, musculoskeletal system, and urogenital tract.

Article 

Avian Anatomy and Physiology Basics

This article is the focus of LafeberVet’s Avian Anatomy Teaching Module, which is RACE-approved for 1 hour of continuing education credit. This review begins with a brief summary of Class Aves before exploring various organ systems. Important vocabulary terms and key concepts are emphasized throughout the text. The reader should have a basic understanding of mammalian anatomy. Birds are quite different both structurally and functionally when compared to mammals, therefore comparisons are frequently drawn between these two taxonomic groups. Since form follows function, descriptions of avian anatomy will also merge into physiology and other life sciences, where appropriate. Clinically relevant information and additional resources on LafeberVet are also highlighted.

Article 

Lymphoma in the Ferret: An Overview of Diagnosis and Treatment

Lymphoma is one of the most commonly diagnosed diseases in the domestic ferret. Hemolymphatic tumors are the third most common neoplasm described in ferrets, with lymphoma representing from 8.6% to 19.3% of ferret neoplasms in retrospective studies. Ferrets of any age or sex can be affected, with lymphoma described in patients as young as 2 months. A recent retrospective found 5 years as the median age of diagnosis in ferrets treated for lymphoma, and was the same for small, intermediate, and large cell lymphomas…

Article  Teaching Module 

Reptile Venipuncture Teaching Module

Hematology and biochemistry results serve as an important part of the minimum database for all veterinary patients. Use three videos on blood collection in lizards, snakes, and chelonians (or text with still images) plus one slideshow on general principles to better understand reptile venipuncture and to improve your ability to obtain a clinically useful sample. This teaching module is approved for 1 hour of continuing credit for veterinarians and veterinary technicians by the American Association of Veterinary State Boards Registry of Approved Continuing Education.

Article  Video 

Blood Collection in Turtles and Tortoises

Successful venipuncture can be a challenge in turtles and tortoises, however hematology and biochemistry results serve as an important part of the minimum database in chelonians just as they do for all veterinary patients. Use this video, or text with still images, to review the equipment needed and sample handling recommendations as well as the potential complications and proper approach to the jugular vein, brachial vein, subcarapacial vessel, and dorsal coccygeal sinus in the chelonian.

Article  Video 

Blood Collection in Lizards

Hematology and biochemistry results are an important part of the minimum database for all veterinary patients, including lizards. Proper venipuncture technique is critical for accurate interpretation of laboratory results. Blood samples are most frequently collected from the ventral coccygeal vein and jugular vein in lizards; however, the site selected can depend on a variety of factors including the preferences and experience of the phlebotomist, the volume of blood needed, patient size and temperament, and of course the species involved.

Article  Video 

Blood Collection in Snakes

Proper patient handling, blood collection technique and sample handling are all critical for accurate interpretation of hematology and biochemistry in all patients, including snakes. Use the video or text with still images to review equipment needed as well as the potential complications and proper approach to the ventral coccygeal vein and the heart, the two most common venipuncture sites in the snake.

Article  Video  Webinar 

Keeping and Treating Mediterranean Tortoises

John Chitty BVetMed CertZooMed MRCVS presented a live, interactive webinar on the unique features of this group of terrestrial Chelonia and how these adaptations to a unique biome affect husbandry and disease investigation. This presentation provides an overview on identification and sexing, captive husbandry, hibernation needs and management, reproduction and follicular stasis, clinical investigations, hospitalization needs, and disease prevention.

Article  Video  Webinar 

Critical Care Techniques for Avian Wildlife Emergencies

Dr. Heather Barron presented this webinar on avian critical care. View a recording of the live, interactive event, then take the brief post-test to earn 1 hour of continuing education credit. The goal of wildlife medicine is always eventual release and therefore triage of avian wildlife may vary based on case load, regulations, and the presenting situation. Dr. Barron examines the guidelines used to set triage policy and the reasons a bird may not be releasable or have a good quality of life in captivity. She then discusses practical measures intended to alleviate suffering and improve the odds of patient survival, such as fluid support, analgesia, evaluation of blood volume, and transfusion. This presentation concludes with a brief discussion on assessing life and euthanasia.

Slideshow  Video 

General Principles of Reptile Venipuncture

Hematology and biochemistry results serve as an important part of the minimum database for all veterinary patients. Although collection of blood samples can be a clinical challenge in reptiles, the method of patient handling, blood collection and sampling techniques are all critical for proper interpretation of laboratory results. This brief video or slideshow with still images reviews the basic principles of reptile venipuncture that should be considered before, during, and after the procedure.

Article 

Transfusion Medicine in Birds

Because of a lack of identified blood groups in companion bird species, compatibility for transfusion is based on the use of major and minor cross matches. A major cross match is performed by mixing donor red cells with recipient plasma and a minor cross match uses recipient cells and donor plasma. The appearance of agglutination or cell lysis indicates incompatibility.

Unlike mammals, a single transfusion between different bird species can be safe and efficacious. Transfusions will be most effective if the donor is…

Article 

Avian Hematology and Biochemistry Panels

Although hematology and biochemistry are an important part of the clinical picture in the avian patient, this bloodwork remains just ‘part of the picture’. All too often, when a clinician is unfamiliar with a species, the reaction is often to rely on laboratory results to hang a diagnosis upon. Although we have all been guilty of this, such an approach is inappropriate. For each sick bird, the following diagnostic tools should be applied: complete history, visual examination of the bird and its environment, physical examination, clinical pathology sample collection (blood, feces, swabs, aspirates, etc.), and radiography.

White blood cells are similar to mammalian lines, except that mammalian neutrophils are replaced with heterophils and mammalian platelets are replaced with thromobocytes. There are significant variations in normal differentials among avian species, in particular the total white cell count and…

Article 

Pediatric Avian Medicine: Diagnostic Testing

Regardless of the initial cause of illness or injury, neonatal psittacine birds often develop secondary bacterial and/or fungal infections that can become serious primary problems. These infections are most commonly encountered within the gastrointestinal tract.

Article 

Iron Storage Disease In Birds

Hemochromatosis, “iron overload”, or “iron storage disease” is the excess accumulation of iron within parenchyma, especially in the liver and eventually in the heart and spleen. Elevated iron stores eventually lead to hepatocyte damage and fibrosis.

Article 

Blood Collection in Sugar Gliders

Blood collection is challenging in sugar gliders. Heavy sedation or general anesthesia, using isoflurane or sevoflurane, is almost always required in clinical practice. The most common sites for blood collection in the glider are the jugular vein and the…

Article 

Blood Collection in Rats and Mice

Blood collection is challenging in rats and mice, and heavy sedation or general anesthesia is almost always required in clinical practice. Increasing patient body temperature to promote vasodilation can also be helpful. Gently warm the rodent by placing its cage on a heating pad set on low or by placing the cage in an incubator set at 39°C (102°F) for 5 to 10 minutes. Monitor the patient carefully…

Article  Presenting Problem 

Presenting problem: Pallor and Anemia in the Ferret

Although the medical approach to anemia is the same as in dogs & cats, some red cell parameters and some differentials differ in the ferret.

The ferret with moderate to severe anemia will exhibit pallor of the mucous membranes, nasal planum and skin. If a clotting disorder exists, petechial, ecchymotic and purpural hemorrhages can also be observed. The owner may complain of lethargy and reduced activity.

Form-Questionnaire 

Procedure Equipment Checklists

Do you have everything? Shared by registered veterinary technician and veterinary technician specialist, Jill Murray of Oklahoma State University, review our collection of procedure equipment checklists. Checklists are used in clinical practice to make preparation for procedures more efficient and more consistent, thereby improving the quality of care. Use these equipment checklists to train students and staff, or simply to jog your memory for procedures performed only sporadically.

Article  Presenting Problem 

Presenting problem: Anticoagulant Rodenticide Toxicosis in Free-Living Birds of Prey

Why is this bird bleeding? Anticoagulant rodenticide exposure in birds of prey has been documented in the United States, Canada, and Europe. Anticoagulant rodenticides have been commonly used over the past decades for control of rodent populations and these rodenticides can cause toxicosis in birds of prey via consumption of poisoned prey.

Anticoagulant rodenticides are divided into two categories: first generation rodenticides like warfarin and second generation rodenticides, such as brodifacoum. Second generation anticoagulant rodenticides are more toxic and also have…

Article 

Laboratory Assessment of the Bleeding Exotic Animal Patient

Hemorrhage in the critical patient can occur from a number of reasons. Before a blood sample is collected, carefully weigh the risk to the exotic animal patient against the clinical value of the test results. What will you do with this information? How will it affect your clinical plan? EDTA is the most commonly used anticoagulant in small mammals; lithium heparin is commonly used in birds and reptiles. Whenever possible, make a blood film immediately after venipuncture using fresh blood free of anticoagulant. Most adult small mammal hematocrits range from…

Article  Video 

Blood Collection in Ferrets

All but the weakest ferrets can be challenging to restrain for blood collection. Consider sedation or general anesthesia, particularly if the handler or phlebotomist is relatively inexperienced; however remember that anesthesia can affect ferret hematology.

Use this video clip or article with still images to review equipment needed, and potential venipuncture sites including the jugular vein, cranial vena cava, lateral saphenous vein, and cephalic vein.

Article  Video 

Blood Collection in Rabbits

The rabbit has a relatively short prothrombin time and whole blood quickly clots at room temperature. To minimize the risk of clot formation, it can be helpful to pre-heparinize the needle and syringe by drawing heparin into the needle and expelling the excess from the hub. The total volume of blood that can be safely collected typically ranges from 0.5% to 1.0% body weight. Collect smaller volumes from geriatric patients or those suspected to have anemia or hypoproteinemia.

Use this video clip or article with still images to review equipment needed, and potential venipuncture sites including the jugular vein, lateral saphenous vein, and ear vessels.

Article  Presenting Problem  Video 

Presenting problem: Hemorrhage in Birds

When a bird is presented for bleeding as with a broken blood feather, it is important to distinguish between frank hemorrhage and blood on the cage or bird without active bleeding. This brief presenting problem article on hemorrhage in birds reviews the key points of urgent care: Hemorrhage that has stopped is best left undisturbed initially, while active bleeding requires immediate intervention by applying firm, steady pressure.

Article 

Venipuncture in Small Mammals

Hematological and serum chemistry tests are considered part of the minimum database, yet collecting blood samples from small mammals can be extremely challenging. This review article reviews the recommended venipuncture site in popular exotic companion mammals including many rodents, rabbits, ferrets, hedgehogs, and sugar gliders. Sample collection from peripheral vessels including the cephalic, saphenous, tail, jugular, ear, and submandibular vein is discussed.
Blind venipuncture sites such as the cranial vena cava and femoral vessels are also described. Veterinary health professionals are also acquainted with the potential risks associated with blood collection from these small species, especially those presenting in advanced diseased states. Tips for clinical success are also shared.

Article 

Clinical Pathology for Exotic Small Mammals

Small mammals, such as rabbits and rodents, are stoic by nature and have evolved to mask their illness to avoid predation. This behavior can create a false sense of security in owners and a clinical challenge for veterinarians. In some cases, an animal that appears clinically normal may in fact have a terminal illness. Use hematology and biochemistry analysis to characterize the true physiological status of these species and aid in disease diagnosis.