Contributor: Christal Pollock, DVM, DABVP (Avian Practice)

Article  Presenting Problem 

Presenting problem: Trauma in Ferrets

Ferrets are small, flexible, mischievous, and curious. This combination means that traumatic injury is a common problem, particularly when owners do not supervise their pets or “ferret proof” their living quarters. For instance, reclining chairs have been implicated in the injury and even death of many ferrets. Ferrets may also be accidentally stepped on or become trapped within a confined space. Trauma can result in a constellation of injuries that may affect the head, thorax, abdomen, spine, and limbs.

Article  Video 

Endotracheal Intubation in the Rabbit

Endotracheal intubation of the rabbit is challenging because it difficult to directly visualize the tracheal opening in all but the largest individuals. Rabbits have a long, narrow oral cavity and the larynx, which sits on a ventral slope, is prone to spasm.

Use this video clip or text with still images to review equipment needed, potential complications as well as the techniques involved for blind intubation and intubation using visualization.

Article  Video 

Blood Collection in Rabbits

The rabbit has a relatively short prothrombin time and whole blood quickly clots at room temperature. To minimize the risk of clot formation, it can be helpful to pre-heparinize the needle and syringe by drawing heparin into the needle and expelling the excess from the hub. The total volume of blood that can be safely collected typically ranges from 0.5% to 1.0% body weight. Collect smaller volumes from geriatric patients or those suspected to have anemia or hypoproteinemia.

Use this video clip or article with still images to review equipment needed, and potential venipuncture sites including the jugular vein, lateral saphenous vein, and ear vessels.

Article 

Referring Non-Traditional Species

Depending on the problem encountered, referral may be in the patient’s best interest as the general practitioner or emergency clinic may lack the necessary expertise, equipment, or medication. Referral may also be indicated when you have an inconclusive diagnosis or when the client requests a second opinion.

Article  Presenting Problem 

Presenting problem: The Fluffed and Ruffled Bird

A relaxed, comfortable bird may briefly fluff out its feathers before its plumage again appears flat and sleek. The critically ill bird may exhibit persistently fluffed and ruffled plumage…

Article  Presenting Problem 

Presenting problem: Cloacal Prolapse in Birds

Cloacal prolapse is a serious and potentially life-threatening problem. Prolapses can originate from the cloaca, oviduct or intestinal tract. The cloaca normally prolapses during egg laying or oviposition, and normal retraction of the cloaca may be slowed or absent in an obese hen or one with hypocalcemia. Excessive abdominal contractions caused by an abnormal egg, dystocia, cloacal disease, gastrointestinal disease or chronic mastubatory behavior can also promote prolapse.

Information sheet 

Basic Information Sheet: Red-Footed Tortoise

“Red-foots” are a medium-sized, hardy tortoise with energy and personality. The red-footed tortoise is native to a wide variety of habitats ranging from humid tropical forests to the dry savannah or semi-arid land of Central and South America. Generally, the species prefers a humid environment.

Red-footed tortoises make excellent pets. Hatchlings in the pet trade are usually captive-bred in the United States, whereas adults may be wild-caught imports…

Article  Presenting Problem  Video 

Presenting problem: Hemorrhage in Birds

When a bird is presented for bleeding as with a broken blood feather, it is important to distinguish between frank hemorrhage and blood on the cage or bird without active bleeding. This brief presenting problem article on hemorrhage in birds reviews the key points of urgent care: Hemorrhage that has stopped is best left undisturbed initially, while active bleeding requires immediate intervention by applying firm, steady pressure.

Article  Presenting Problem  Video 

Presenting problem: Broken Blood Feather

Why is a broken blood feather an emergency? When the blood feather breaks, the feather shaft acts like a straw making the vessels bleed much longer than they would otherwise due to capillary action. The degree of blood loss can be significant, particularly in small birds. Use this video clip or article with still images to review the basic structure of the blood feather, key points of urgent care as well as follow-up care.

Article  Video 

Intravenous Catheter Placement in the Bird

Fluid therapy is a vital part of avian medicine, and appropriate administration of fluids is essential. Intravenous catheters are commonly used intraoperatively or in more stable hospitalized patients. Unfortunately intravenous catheter placement in birds can be challenging. The veins can be difficult to access and the vessels are also prone to hematoma formation.

Use this video clip or text with still images to review the equipment needed, the technique involved, and potential venipuncture sites including the jugular vein, medial metatarsal vein and basilic or ulnar vein.

Article  Video 

Syringe Feeding the Ferret

Loss of appetite is a common finding in the sick ferret and nutritional support is often required. Ferrets with insulinoma may also require regular assist feedings to help maintain normal blood glucose levels. Fortunately syringe feeding the ferrets is a relatively straightforward process. The short, simple gut of the ferret has only a limited ability to absorb nutrients. So even healthy ferrets require a highly digestible diet. Use this video or article to review the equipment needed and the technique involved.

Article  Video 

Ferret Restraint

Pet ferrets are easily handled using minimal restraint and a little petting. And with the exception of nursing females, ferrets rarely bite although young ferrets or “kits” may nip. Manual restraint is required for these lively, active creatures during uncomfortable procedures like obtaining a rectal temperature or during procedures that call for the animal to remain still like abdominal palpation. Use this video clip or text with still images to review handling techniques such as scruffing and stretching.

Article  Quiz  Video 

Rabbit Restraint

Rabbits possess a relatively lightweight, delicate skeleton paired with extremely strong, well-developed back and leg muscles. If improper restraint allows the rabbit to struggle or kick powerfully, they are in danger of breaking their back or a leg. Use this video clip or text with still images to review the equipment needed and techniques involved in rabbit handling and restraint.

Article  Video 

Syringe Feeding Herbivorous Small Mammals

Mild to moderately ill exotic companion mammals are often syringe fed, and proper syringe-feeding technique is an essential skill for critical care nutrition of ferrets, rabbits, and rodents. Gastrointestinal stasis is one of the most common medical problems seen in small herbivores. A cornerstone of treatment is delivery of food containing high dietary fiber. Aggressive fluid therapy, often in the form of oral and subcutaneous fluids, is also crucial for successful management. Always address dehydration before beginning nutritional support. Get specific tips to improve your clinical success with this video clip or read the article with still images.

Article  Video 

Urethral Catheterization in Male Ferrets

Urethral catheterization of the male ferret is challenging due to the animal’s small size and J-shaped os penis, however the principles of catheterization as well as monitoring during catheter placement are essentially the same as in the domestic cat. Use this video or the article with still images to review equipment needed, potential complications and the steps involved in this critical care technique.

Article  Video 

Subcutaneous Fluids in Birds

The subcutaneous route is the most common method of fluid administration in the avian patient. Subcutaneous fluids are an excellent way to provide maintenance fluids or to correct mild dehydration in birds. This video clip and article with still images describe the equipment needed and the technique involved in this supportive care procedure.

Fluids are most commonly given in the inguinal space (crural patagium). With the bird secured by an assistant, have them extend one of the bird’s legs out and to one side. Wet down the area on the inner thigh to see the skin better at a point about halfway between…

Article  Video 

Passerine Handling and Restraint

Manual restraint is required for virtually any medical procedure in the songbird or passerine. Warn owners of the inherent risk of handling the critically ill bird. Minimize handling time so the bird does not overheat or become overly distressed, and monitor the bird closely for any change in strength, breathing, or attitude. Use this video clip or text with still images to review equipment needed as well as handling and restraint techniques.

Article  Video 

Intraosseous Catheter Placement in the Bird

Fluid therapy is indicated in critical patients including exotic animals. Vascular access can be extremely difficult or even impossible during shock, making intraosseous or IO catheterization necessary in the bird. Fortunately fluids and medications given through IO catheters are immediately taken up into the vasculature. The distal ulna is the site of choice for intraosseous catheter placement in the bird.

Article  Video 

Intraosseous Catheter Placement in Small Mammals

Fluid therapy is an important part of supportive care in the critical patient. When intravenous catheter placement fails or when veins are too small or too fragile, an intraosseous or IO catheter is an excellent option in exotic companion mammals. Use this video or text with still images to review equipment needed, potential complications, as well as the technique for intraosseous catheter placement in small mammals.

Article  Video 

Parrot Handling and Restraint

Manual restraint and handling is required for most medical procedures in the companion parrot, also known as the psittacine or hookbill. Warn owners of the inherent risk of handling the critically ill bird and minimize handling time so the bird does not overheat or become overly distressed. Also monitor the bird closely for any change in strength, breathing, or attitude. Parrot handling also carries potential risk for veterinary medical staff since even friendly birds may bite if they feel threatened.

Article  Video 

Tube Feeding Birds

Tube feeding, also known as gavage feeding, is an essential part of avian supportive care. Sick birds are often presented with a history of anorexia and glycogen stores may be depleted within hours in small species with relatively high metabolic rates. Another important indication for gavage feeding is a documented drop in body weight of 5% to 10%.

Article  Video 

Oral Drug Administration in Birds

Oral drug administration in birds can be a fairly straightforward process that works quite well for small doses. Use this video and text with still images to review the equipment needed as well as the technique involved in per os dosing for the veterinary avian patient.

Article  Video 

Intramuscular Injections in Birds

Intramuscular injections in birds are given into the pectoral muscle mass, which consists of superficial and deep pectoral muscles with a prominent fascial plane in between. View the brief video illustrating this clinical technique or review text with image.

Article  Video 

Nutritional Support in Reptiles

Nutritional support is indicated in reptiles with a 10% drop in body weight, and force-feeding is sometimes indicated with a history of anorexia. Interpretation of anorexia can be difficult in some reptiles, particularly snakes and chelonians. Never rush to feed a reptile. The patient must first be warm, housed at its preferred optimal temperature zone, and must be adequately hydrated.

Article  Video 

Chinchilla Restraint

Chinchillas, like many small exotic mammals, are prey species that can become easily stressed in a hospital setting. Approach these patients calmly and quietly. Fortunately most pet chinchillas are relatively docile. They are typically used to being handled and will often come out of their cage voluntarily. Use this video and text with still images to review the cautions or potential complications of chinchilla restraint and handling well as the technique involved.

Article 

Venipuncture in Small Mammals

Hematological and serum chemistry tests are considered part of the minimum database, yet collecting blood samples from small mammals can be extremely challenging. This review article reviews the recommended venipuncture site in popular exotic companion mammals including many rodents, rabbits, ferrets, hedgehogs, and sugar gliders. Sample collection from peripheral vessels including the cephalic, saphenous, tail, jugular, ear, and submandibular vein is discussed.
Blind venipuncture sites such as the cranial vena cava and femoral vessels are also described. Veterinary health professionals are also acquainted with the potential risks associated with blood collection from these small species, especially those presenting in advanced diseased states. Tips for clinical success are also shared.

Article 

Online Resources: Small Mammals

Although we’d like to believe you need look no further, exotic animal medicine is a diverse and varied topic. View LafeberVet’s ever-growing list of additional online resources on small mammal medicine.

Information sheet 

Basic Information Sheet: African Pygmy Hedgehog

The African pygmy hedgehog is a native of West and Central Africa. When threatened, the hedgehog curls into a ball, extends its spines, puffs up, and hisses. When exposed to a new object, hedgehogs may exhibit “self anointing” or “anting”. The new object is licked until thick, frothy saliva collects and is then…

Form-Questionnaire 

Avian Neurologic Exam Form 1

Provided by Dr. Tracy Clippinger of the San Diego Zoo. Download Neurologic Exam Form 1 PDF.

Form-Questionnaire 

Avian Eye Exam Form 1

Created by LafeberVet and adapted from a standard ophthalmic exam form at Kansas State University College of Veterinary Medicine. Download Avian Ophthalmic Exam Form 1 PDF .

Form-Questionnaire 

Drop-Off Appointment Form

Although in many instances a complete history form should be used for a drop-off appointment, this form may also prove useful. Download Drop-Off Appointment Form PDF

Form-Questionnaire 

Rodent Dental Chart

Download the 2-page PDF version of the Rodent Dental Chart (137 KB).

Form-Questionnaire 

Avian Behavioral History Form 2 – Parrots

Provided by behaviorist, Pamela Clark. I have used this behavior consult information form for 10 years, perfecting it along the way. Download Behavioral History Form 2 PDF.

Form-Questionnaire 

Avian Physical Examination Form 3

Avian Physical Examination Forms Created by LafeberVet

Download Avian PE Form 3 PDF

Provided by Dr. Tom Tully of Louisiana State University

Article 

Catheter Placement in the Avian Patient

General anesthesia is generally required for placement unless the patient is extremely weak. A spinal needle or hypodermic needle may be selected.

Article  Video 

Avian Respiratory Emergencies: An Approach to the Dyspneic Bird

After recognizing a dyspneic bird, the clinician’s initial response should be: Hands Off!! Dyspneic birds can die soon after presentation with the additional stress of restraint and handling. Therefore minimize handling and place the bird in an oxygen-rich cage. Humidify air and provide 40 to 50% oxygen. As in mammals, oxygen therapy is potentially toxic if given for prolonged periods at high levels.